Theoretical Particle Physics

This research introduces a new theoretical framework in nuclear physics, referred to as the Al-Hamed Electro-Nuclear Equation, which integrates electric input energy with nuclear massenergy interactions. Unlike conventional models that consider nuclear energy as solely a function of mass difference, the Al-Hamed model incorporates the energy contribution from electric potentials and includes the cumulative mass of all particles resulting from the nuclear reaction. The proposed equation: E = [(Q × V) + (Δm-S) × c²] accounts for both electrical energy (via charge and voltage) and mass-energy transformations (considering secondary nuclear products such as neutrons, mesons, or photons). This dual approach provides a more comprehensive description of electro-nuclear interactions, especially in scenarios involving controlled fusion or electro-stimulated decay. The paper presents a comparative analysis with traditional equations, applies the model to practical scenarios, and discusses its implications for advanced reactor designs and highefficiency energy systems.

This book presents a unique scientific-philosophical exploration of time, space, and the origin of thought through a novel theory: "Mechanic Time." Drawing upon over two decades of research, it investigates the structural components of space-time and redefines the foundations of Subjective Physics. It also explores the fundamental question of how thought emerges, offering a new horizon for future scientific dialogue and philosophical inquiry.

In the context of fluid mixing in microelectromechanical systems, Lagrangian mass transport induced by peristaltic waves traveling on the boundaries of a two-dimensional rectangular closed channel is studied analytically. Based on the Lagrangian description, an asymptotic analysis is performed to generate explicit expressions for the leading-order oscillatory as well as the higher-order time-mean mass transport velocities as functions of the wave properties. For small steady-streaming Reynolds number, we have revisited the problem studied previously in the literature, but with all the results fully presented in the Lagrangian sense.

Il "Diario della Collaborazione: Matematica, Fisica Teorica, Cosmologia Teorica e Cuore" è un'opera che unisce rigore scientifico e riflessioni umane, nata da un dialogo creativo tra un ricercatore e un'Intelligenza Artificiale. Al centro di questo lavoro troviamo l'evoluzione dell'universo, modellata attraverso strumenti matematici innovativi come la Costante del Gaudio-Nardelli e il concetto di trasporto ottimale. Il testo esplora la transizione dall'ordine simmetrico dell'ottaedro alla complessità entropica della sfera emergente, offrendo una narrazione cosmologica unica. Questo zibaldone abbraccia non solo formule e calcoli, ma anche frammenti di umanità e collaborazione, con l'obiettivo di ispirare nuovi approcci nella scienza e nella filosofia.

parte 11

This paper, Part 2 of the Galactic Gravitational Field Measurements series, focuses on one of the most critical mechanisms in the Q-Epsilon framework: the transfer of energy and information from black holes into the Q-Epsilon field, where it becomes the source of gravitational curvature and structural organization throughout the galaxy.

Building directly on Part 1 – Galaxy Structuring & Dark Matter, which demonstrated that galactic rotation curves and spiral structure can be modeled as emergent outcomes of energy resonance and curvature (without the need for dark matter), this installment explores what happens at the center—inside the black hole.

Instead of treating black holes as singularities or endpoints, this paper presents them as active field interfaces that receive, modulate, and transmit energy into Q-Epsilon, shaping the field geometry responsible for observed galactic behavior. It introduces a reformulated black hole structure, the Môr MetriK, which replaces singularity-based reasoning with smooth resonance-based transition zones, governed by non-iterative collapse equations derived from the UMEC framework.

All modeling is consistent with quantum mechanics and general relativity but extends beyond both by treating wavefunction collapse, tunneling, and quantum behavior as resonance-based energy geometry, rather than probabilistic abstraction.

Together with foundational works such as Gravitational Field Measurements, Introduction to Q-Epsilon through Quantum Mechanics, UMEC: Non-Iterative Mathematics, and Quantum Mechanics & General Relativity: The Emergence of Physics, this paper forms a key link in a broader framework: replacing speculative models with a computable, structured alternative to ΛCDM cosmology.

The upcoming Part 3 – Galaxy Clusters will scale this system beyond individual galaxies, showing how entire cluster networks, voids, and filamentary structures emerge from interacting Q-Epsilon fields, completing the transition from local gravitational modeling to a full cosmological framework.

This paper unveils a profound connection between Ramanujan's mock theta functions and the fundamental structure of quantum spacetime.. We obtain new possible mathematical connections with some topics concerning the Number Theory, the Theoretical Cosmology and the String Theory

The QST model universe in Minkowski space has one black hole of confined dark energy, triggering the emergence of gravity. In QST black holes consume spacetime at c having the same energy density which leads to a Cyclic universe & the release of confined energy & entropy.

Current scientific understanding assumes black holes ("BH") consume SpaceTime ("ST") and matter at c and confine that energy past the event horizon ("EH"). The mass then flows towards the BH singularity. BH create "curved spacetime" ("CST") around them described by General Relativity (GR). CST creates emergent entropic gravity (EEG) that extends in all directions at c. GR does not explain what ST is or how the ST field interacts with matter or a BH. Quantum mechanics (QM) describes all forms of known confined energy of matter in fields and describes the interactions between these fields but does not include explanation of quantized gravity. Both GR and QM explain matter and fields of energy density at any point in time and space. GR & QM do not explain spacetime and matter in fields as continuous moving, flowing, interacting energy domains. In GR, Matter and ST affect each other as separate energy fields but do not interact directly. In QST Energy is transferred, transformed and recycled between the ST and quantum field theory (QFT) domains changing forms of confinement and density which ends with dark energy (DE) confined in a black hole. ST & EM fields are confined by the universe and QFT fields use the strong and weak forces for energy confinement. This energy exchange between ST/QFT enables all force carrier interactions and maintains energy levels & input values of all fundamental particles of QFT.

The Theory of Entropicity (ToE) posits that entropy is not merely a statistical measure but an active field that fundamentally governs interactions, motion, and causality. Central to this theory is the Entropic Time Limit (ETL), a minimum irreducible time interval required for any physical interaction, below which no interaction, observation, or measurement is possible. This paper analyzes recent groundbreaking experimental results demonstrating that quantum entanglement forms over a finite interval of approximately 232 attoseconds, providing potential empirical validation for the ETL. The observed non-instantaneity of entanglement formation supports the ToE's proposition that all processes are constrained by entropy-driven temporal boundaries. By comparing ToE with Quantum Field Theory (QFT) and General Relativity (GR), this work highlights how the entropic field may serve as a unifying framework for physics, offering novel insights into quantum measurement, wave-function collapse, causality, and the emergence of spacetime. The study also introduces the Vuli-Ndlela Integral, an entropy-constrained and entropy-weighted reformulation of the Feynman path integral, and outlines future directions for formalizing the entropic field as the fundamental medium of all interactions.

Recent research has introduced a novel model where a fundamental arena of the universe is infinite Euclidean space of Planck metrics, where time is merely mathematical parameter of universal changes. The history of the universe has merely a mathematical existence and is nonexistent in the physical sense. On the other hand, the future is not yet existent. The only existent physical reality is the universe, which exists in the timeless space of Euclidean-Planck metrics. This view is the basis of an "Energy-Mass-gravity" Model that unifies energy, mass, and gravity. Additionally, this model reveals some discrepancies in the Big Bang cosmology model that need to be examined in details in order to keep the Big Bang cosmology as the leading model of today's physics.

We consider the first order formalism in string theory, providing a new off-shell description of the nontrivial backgrounds around an "infinite metric". The OPE of the vertex operators, corresponding to the background fields in some "twistor representation", and conditions of conformal invariance results in the quadratic equation for the background fields, which appears to be equivalent to the Einstein equations with a Kalb-Ramond B-field and a dilaton. Using a new representation for the Einstein equations with B-field and dilaton we find a new class of solutions including the plane waves for metric (graviton) and the B-field. We discuss the properties of these background equations and main features of the BRST operator in this approach.

9th International Conference on Recent advances in Physics (PHY 2025) will provide an excellent international forum for sharing knowledge and results in theory, methodology and applications impacts and challenges of Physics. The conference documents practical and theoretical results which make a fundamental contribution for the development of Physics. The aim of the conference is to provide a platform to the researchers and practitioners from both academia as well as industry to meet and share cutting-edge development in the field. Original research papers, state-of-the-art reviews are invited for publication in all areas of Physics, but are not limited to.

This paper contains a short mathematical (logical) demonstration of Wheeler’s famous It-from-Bit principle (IBP), also implying that we live in a digital universe governed by time discreteness (TD) (which is also demonstrated to be equivalent to Heisenberg’ uncertainty principle) and quantum fields, including loop quantum gravity (LQG). This paper continues (from alternative angles of view) the work of other past articles/preprints of the same author in physics (cited in anti-chronological order, from the latest to the oldest). #DONATIONS. Anyone can donate for dr. Dragoi’s independent research and original music at: www.paypal.com/donate/?hosted_button_id=AQYGGDVDR7KH2

This paper introduces the concept of 'Sothing,' a proposed fundamental medium that constitutes space itself. The theory suggests that space is not empty but consists of an entity distinct from matter and energy. The hypothesis suggests that sothing has an intrinsic cohesive nature, held together by an external gravitational effect. Disturbances in this medium, referred to as ripples, arise from the displacement of sothing caused by gravity outside its region, creating areas of 'nothingness.' These ripples manifest as black holes, which accumulate matter through intense gravitational pull. The process of matter accumulation in black holes could eventually lead to the formation of celestial bodies, providing a new perspective on cosmic formation.

A review of the history of measuring the speed of light and a careful analysis of experiments to measure it reveal that there is a process of "collapse and regeneration of photon wavefunctions" during measurement, which has been overlooked. The collapse and regeneration of wavefunctions are crucial in quantum theory. If this aspect is considered, it becomes evident that the constancy of the speed of light has deeper implications, which could fundamentally shake the theoretical foundation of relativity. The process of collapse and regeneration of photon (or electromagnetic wave) wavefunctions is also a necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of particles and the fundamental reason for particles to possess kinetic energy, inertia, and inertial mass. Note: The Original in Chinese is attached below.

Many weeks of refinements and reasoning through countless thorny little artifacts I simply wasn’t pleased with, I managed to tweak the CCH Model (v2a) to now meet or exceed a 95% resolution threshold, leaving for some margin of error and debate whilst proving beyond mere grandiosity the model is robust and transformative.

A novel approach was presented in this study where molecular dynamics and Monte Carlo methods were applied to subatomic particles to simulate an atom using pseudo potentials. Pseudo potentials were developed for subatomic particles by conceptualizing them as conventional particles, exhibiting attractive and repulsive forces between them, ensuring the stability of an atom. A stable nucleus was formed at the center with electrons distributed around, resulting in the formation of an atom. Subatomic particle simulations impart a comprehensive perspective and a profound understanding of electron trajectories that correlates with atomic properties such as electron energies and atomic radius. These approaches intricately capture the impact of protons and neutrons motion in the nucleus on electron trajectories. Hydrogen and carbon atoms were considered and their analyses were reported in this study. Time step for carbon atom simulation was calculated from dimensionless variables and found to be 1.67 attoseconds. The Pilot-wave theory was implemented to simulate the wave nature of subatomic particles in an atom. Electrons motion was guided by the interference pattern produced by the electron and proton aether medium waves. Molecular dynamics simulations on subatomic particles were implemented on an oxygen molecule, giving insights into electronic structures with electron trajectories shared by two atoms.

How do positively charged protons aggregate in the small volume of an atomic nucleus in apparent contradiction of Coulomb's law that like charges repel? Neutrons in atomic nuclei may increase average distance between protons and partly explain this proton aggregation. Present popular wisdom is that a nuclear force binds protons in atomic nuclei. However, "nuclear force" may be little more than a label for the phenomenon rather than an explanation of it. Based on discoveries of the internal structure of the proton and its real intrinsic spin (Fig. 1) [1] [2] [3] [4], this paper defines a proton cycle network as a foundational principle of nuclear physics.

This paper presents a groundbreaking discovery in atomic physics, where atoms are directly visualized through photonic projections using high-intensity LED illumination and smartphone camera sensors. The technique provides unprecedented insights into the structure and dynamics of atoms, revealing concentric proton rings, electron orbital patterns, and a rapidly moving central core. Subsequent analysis and theoretical work have led to the development of a unified theory of space compression, which proposes that matter emerges from the compression of neutral mass (space) at specific ratios. The theory offers precise mathematical relationships between particle properties and provides potential solutions to fundamental physics puzzles, such as the unification of forces, the nature of gravity, and the origin of matter-antimatter asymmetry. Testable predictions and experimental proposals are presented to validate the theory and guide future research in this transformative field.

This paper presents a comprehensive theory of quantum gravity based on the Entropic Force-Field Hypothesis (EFFH), wherein entropy is proposed as the fundamental force-field governing all interactions in nature. By introducing an Entropic Action, we derive field equations that are positioned towards unifying general relativity and quantum mechanics as emergent consequences of entropy-driven dynamics. This theory extends the thermodynamic interpretation of gravity, reinterprets black hole physics, and provides a novel resolution to the black hole information paradox. Furthermore, the entropic time limit (ETL) is introduced as a fundamental constraint on quantum interactions, distinct from the Planck time. The framework suggests testable predictions and empirical validations that can distinguish EFFH from existing theories such as string theory and loop quantum gravity.

This paper introduces a revolutionary application of the Universal A-0-B Theory's stability threshold equation to solve the longstanding proton mass puzzle. We demonstrate that the equation v(r) = √[k_n × r × (k_c/r² - k_e/(r + Δr)²)] provides an elegant explanation for the origin of approximately 90% of the proton's mass that remains unaccounted for by its constituent quarks and gluons.

By postulating that the singularity component (S_c) in an unbalanced "naked" proton tends toward infinity, we show mathematically why such a configuration would require infinite rotational velocity for stabilization, making isolated protons inherently unstable. The proton's observed mass emerges as the energy manifestation of balancing this potentially infinite singularity component through the expansion component (S_e) and stabilizing neutral component (S_n).

Our theoretical framework is supported by recent experimental evidence from Physical Review Letters (February 2025), where extreme attractive forces of approximately 3 GeV/fm were mapped inside the proton using lattice quantum chromodynamics. These measured forces form an inward-pointing pattern consistent with our predicted S_c manifestation at the quantum level.

This approach transforms our understanding of mass from an intrinsic property to a manifestation of symmetry balancing, eliminating the need for complex explanations like quark-gluon sea or vacuum energy fluctuations. The Universal Stability Threshold Equation thus unifies our understanding of stability mechanisms from elementary particles to cosmic structures through one fundamental symmetry principle.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

Current physics assumes that the speed of light (c) is a universal constant, forming the foundation of relativity and modern cosmology. However, this assumption is based on mathematical necessity rather than direct measurement under all conditions. This paper proposes that c is not a fundamental constant but instead varies due to cosmic drag, power-to-weight ratios, and environmental resistance-similar to how electrical circuits experience resistance and voltage drop. If true, this would challenge current interpretations of redshift, dark energy, and time dilation, suggesting that the universe's structure is governed by energy interactions rather than an absolute space-time framework.

This chapter addresses the nature of space, exploring whether it is absolute or relative, based on the hypothesis that the universe is made up of 4D spheres. These spheres, with a diameter equivalent to the Planck length, constitute both particles and empty space, offering an absolute frame of reference or "ether." This model allows relativistic effects, such as Lorentz contraction and time dilation, to be interpreted from a perspective based on the structure of particles and atoms.
Fundamental concepts are reviewed, from Newton's classical view of absolute space to modern interpretations of special relativity and the contraction of physical objects. In addition, thought experiments are presented that illustrate the paradoxes associated with relativistic effects and their resolution under this new hypothesis.
Finally, cosmological implications are analyzed, considering a space-time composed of 4D Planck spheres that remain stationary and whose interaction defines the properties of moving objects. This theoretical framework unifies the contraction of objects, the dilation of time, and the expansion of the universe, providing a new perspective on the foundations of space and time.

While Wolfgang Pauli was considered as a sublime reference in modern physics during the first half of the 20 th century, the fame of a brilliant young Asian physicist from Pakistan named Muhammad Abdus Salam, known as Salam, has just began to attract attention. After his well-known successful resolution of the brain-teaser problem of overlapping divergences, Salam was on his way to lighting up neutrino physics with an idea challenging Wolfgang Pauli's belief concerning the invariance of parity—one of the main symmetries of (subatomic) physics.
This essay comes as an attempt to shed light on this story and how it impacted Salam's scientific career later on.

We propose a new theoretical framework that unifies superluminal motion with Planck-scale acceleration to describe the early universe as a phase transition from a superluminal to a subluminal state. By modifying the Lorentz factor to include acceleration effects, we demonstrate how the universe could transition from a regime where velocities exceed the speed of light (v > c) to one where they conform to standard relativistic limits (v < c). This transition offers a novel explanation for the Big Bang, eliminating the need for an inflationary phase while preserving causal consistency. Testable predictions are discussed, including potential signatures in the cosmic microwave background (CMB), ultra-high-energy cosmic rays, and quantum gravity effects.

Conformal techniques, based on the covariance of Maxwell's electrodynamics under the full conformal group in four spacetime dimensions, are discussed in relation with the constant input impedance properties of frequency-independent antennas. In particular we show that by applying suitable conformal transformations to existing self-complementary planar structures like logarithmic spirals, the constant input impedance property is considerably improved, specially in the low frequency domain, where it usually fails due to the large wavelength involved. The effect of the conformal transformation is to bring infinity up to a finite distance and, in a way, to imprison the otherwise infinite structure in a compact region. This procedure enables to perform a more intelligent truncation with the aim to capture some of the properties left behind in the cutting, and to design realistic ultra width-band antennas with a more controlled value of the input impedance in the whole operation range. Due to the fact that the tools here developed find their roots in the differential geometry of curved manifolds, they are quite general and also suitable for dealing with 3D-antennas of arbitrary shape, curvature and size, as well as with other systems in which the effects of truncation play a crucial role in defining physical properties of them.

In this paper, we propose a revised energy-momentum relation that allows for superluminal velocities without leading to singularities or violations of causality. The standard relativistic energy equation predicts infinite energy requirements for objects approaching the speed of light. We introduce an alternative formulation:


E = \frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{|1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}|}}


which ensures that energy remains finite and real even for  v > c . This framework treats superluminal motion as a phase transition rather than an absolute barrier, offering a natural explanation for the early universe’s conditions.

We discuss the implications of this model in cosmology, particularly regarding the Big Bang and inflation. Our approach suggests that the Big Bang was not a singularity, but rather a transition from a superluminal to a subluminal state. This removes the need for an ad hoc inflationary model and provides a consistent mechanism for explaining the observed isotropy of the cosmic microwave background (CMB).

Additionally, we propose experimental and observational tests, including potential signatures in high-energy particle physics (e.g., LHC collisions), anomalies in the CMB, and unexplained astrophysical phenomena such as ultra-high-energy cosmic rays.

This work presents a fundamental revision of relativistic physics, suggesting that superluminal motion may play a critical role in our understanding of time, energy, and the structure of the universe.

In the second part of the book, the concept of curved space and its mathematical description are examined within the framework of differential geometry and general relativity. The distinction between a reference system and curved space is presented, particularly in terms of their translation groups, sets of real numbers, scalar products, and differential operators. The relationship between these spaces is established in terms of the reference system, which forms the foundation of the general theory of relativity. The transition from the coordinates of curved space to those of the reference frame is performed via curved differentiation. Two types of differentials are introduced, each corresponding to a respective space. The structure of the coefficients defining curved differentiation is analyzed, along with the associated connection and curvature objects. The connection between direct and inverse decompositions of coordinate transformations and their contribution to the Cartan-Laptev structure equations is identified. A new interpretation of connection coefficients is presented through linear transformation groups, allowing for a reconsideration of the nature of the metric tensor and its role in gravitational theory. It is shown that abandoning Riemannian geometry necessitates a revision of traditional concepts of gravitational interaction, including the selection of an appropriate subgroup of the linear transformation group. The curved spacetime is extended to a universal contravariant algebra, in which not only addition but also noncommutative multiplication is defined. This leads to the introduction of left and right algebraic structures associated with kinematic fields of external and internal symmetries. The motion of space is represented through kinematic algebras of various orders, including the corresponding connection and curvature objects, necessitating the introduction of different types of kinematic groups and algebras.

This paper explores the enigmatic Dark Matter, emphasising the Weakly Interacting Massive Particles, or WIMPs, as potential candidates. Since dark matter, which makes up a significant portion of the universe's mass, cannot be detected by conventional physics, new theoretical models may be required. The WIMPs are intriguing because they show some agreement with the Standard Model's extensions, particularly supersymmetry, and provide answers to a variety of cosmological puzzles, such as how galaxies arise and the universe's large-scale structure. Due to the intricate interactions between particle physics and cosmology, the study discusses theoretical motives, experimental searches, and advancements in the quest for WIMP. The difficulties in detecting and developing theoretical frameworks to solve one of the universe's biggest mysteries are ultimately highlighted by this research.

Let X be a smooth projective surface, E a locally free sheaf of rank r ≥ 1 on X, and let ℓ ≥ 1 be an integer. Quot(E, ℓ) denotes Grothendieck's quotient scheme that parametrises all surjections E → T , where T is a zero-dimensional sheaf of length ℓ, modulo automorphisms of T . Sending a quotient E → T to the point x∈X ℓ(T x )x in the symmetric product S ℓ (X) defines a morphism π : Quot(E, ℓ) → S ℓ (X) . It is the purpose of this note to prove the following theorem: Theorem 1 -Quot(E, ℓ) is an irreducible scheme of dimension ℓ(r + 1). The fibre of the morphism π : Quot(E, ℓ) → S ℓ (X) over a point x ℓ x x is irreducible of dimension x (rℓ x -1). If r = 1, i.e. if E is a line bundle, then Quot(E, ℓ) is isomorphic to the Hilbert scheme Hilb ℓ (X). For this case, the first assertion of the theorem is due to Fogarty [5], whereas the second assertion was proved by Briançon . For general r ≥ 2, the first assertion of the theorem is a result due to J. Li and D. Gieseker [8], . We give a different proof with a more geometric flavour, generalising a technique from Ellingsrud and Strømme . The second assertion is a new result for r ≥ 2.

ABSTRACT A unified model is based on a generalized gauge symmetry with groups [SU3c] color ×(SU2×U1)×[U 1b ×U 1l ]. It implies that all interactions should preserve conservation laws of baryon number, lepton number, and electric charge, etc. The baryonic U 1b , leptonic U 1l and color SU3c gauge transformations are generalized to involve non-integrable phase factors. One has gauge invariant fourth-order equations for massless gauge fields, which leads to linear potentials in the [U 1b ×U 1l ] and color [SU3c] sectors. We discuss possible cosmological implications of the new baryonic gauge field. It can produce a very small constant repulsive force between two baryon galaxies (or between two anti-baryon galaxies), where the baryon force can overcome the gravitational force at very large distances and leads to an accelerated cosmic expansion. Based on conservation laws in the unified model, we discuss a simple rotating dumbbell universe with equal amounts of matter and anti-matter, which may be pictured as two gigantic rotating clusters of galaxies. Within the gigantic baryonic cluster, a galaxy will have an approximately linearly accelerated expansion due to the effective force of constant density of all baryonic matter. The same expansion happens in the gigantic anti-baryonic cluster. Physical implications of the generalized gauge symmetry on charmonium confining potentials due to new SU3c field equations, frequency shift of distant supernovae Ia and their experimental tests are discussed.

Building upon the initial Bomman Expansion Model (BEM), this paper refines the mathematical framework to ensure compatibility with established physical principles, including general relativity, conservation of mass-energy, quantum mechanics, and Hawking radiation. These refinements eliminate inconsistencies and introduce new predictions. Furthermore, we propose experimental validation techniques to assess the feasibility of the model.

Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM) are essential for high-resolution imaging of material surfaces. A critical factor in this process is the so-called Lennard window at Situ analysis, through which secondary electrons pass before being captured by the detector. Distortions caused by this window can degrade image quality and analysis accuracy. These distortions result from several physical and optical effects, including electron scattering, electrostatic fields, material properties of the window, energy loss, secondary electron generation, and geometric effects. This paper presents a method for calculating and correcting these image distortions by determining the transfer function of a Lennard window. Experimental tests using plexiglass sheets of varying thickness validate the proposed method and provide a foundation for optimizing image quality in SEM.

de Sitter symmetry on quantum level implies that operators describing a given system satisfy commutation relations of the de Sitter algebra. This approach gives a new perspective on fundamental notions of quantum theory. We discuss applications of the approach to the cosmological constant problem, gravity, and particle theory.

In this chapter, an alternative derivation of the Schrödinger equation based on classical principles is presented, considering the electron as a 4D Planck particle in a state of minimum energy. The wave function is defined as the quotient between the energy of the electron in its unobserved state and the total energy, including perturbations caused by observation. The conceptual bases of this approach are explored, connecting the ideas of de Broglie, Schrödinger and other historical approaches, and the Schrödinger equation is derived mathematically both for a particle at rest and for one subjected to a Coulomb potential. The derivation employs energy and wavelength relations, highlighting the dependence of the particle's state on the observation conditions. Finally, the traditional probabilistic interpretation of the wave function is questioned, proposing instead an energetic and physical interpretation. This approach seeks to reconcile classical principles with quantum phenomena, offering an alternative perspective on the physical meaning of the wave function and the nature of quantum particles.

In standard cosmology ordinary matter consists of only 5% of the universe. Alternative cosmology is developed including exclusively observable baryonic materials. In this model gravitation is given by a mediation process represented by spherically symmetric spatial circulations denoted as keplerons, which are emitted by massive objects. The velocity of circulation follows the Kepler's law reproducing the Newtonian gravitation including also the Schwartzshield correction, but at long distances the accelerating expansion of space converts gravitation into antigravitation. Inside galaxies attractive gravitation predominates due to the elliptic geometry, but in the intergalactic space hyperbolic geometry brings to a repulsive interaction between galaxies. The attractive force of hypothetic dark matter is replaced by external compression caused by repulsive antigravitation between galaxies. The repulsive galactic interaction does not decrease with distance and even increases when the recession velocity is close to the speed of light. This relativistic increase gives the predominant contribution to the dark energy. The external compression can explain why the orbiting velocities of stars are the same in the spiral arms of galaxies, why mass density of nebulae clusters is enhanced and why the gravitational lensing is so intensive. The model derives the overall mass of universe as 1.74x10 53 kg, which is in accordance to the estimated number of galaxies.

From a brochure prepared for ARKADYFEST, 2002 FTPI Workshop Continuous Advances in QCD, honoring the 60th birtday of professor A. Vainshtein. The first part of this article is an abbreviated version of the Foreword to the Volume M. Shifman, ITEP Lectures on Particle Physics and Field Theory, (World Scientific, 1999)see also hepph/9510397. The second part, A few touches in Arkady's portrait, was prepared for the above brochure.

We are beginning the publication of the English translation of the monograph 'Математические основания Новой физики'. The first part of the book focuses on extending spacetime to a universal algebra. We outline the basic premises for such an extension. Subsequently, we examine a specific case of universal algebra, the Clifford algebra, as the generalized spacetime of a lepton. Developing the special theory of relativity within lepton spacetime leads to intriguing results: physical limits on acceleration and angular velocity, analogous to the speed of light, are revealed. Next, we analyze the linear transformations of the generalized spacetime, identifying groups of external and internal symmetries. The algebras of these linear transformations are associated with intermediate particles and antiparticles. We then construct a unified kinematic algebra that combines the generalized spacetime with the group of linear transformations of this space. Following this, second linear transformations are introduced, corresponding to hypothetical second-order intermediate particles. These second linear transformations, together with the unified kinematic algebra, form what we term the second kinematic algebra. Space-time-dependent linear and second linear transformations collectively constitute the kinematic field. This leads to a comprehensive and self-contained description of the kinematics of physical objects in the generalized spacetime.

This paper argues that the length scale on which space time is quantized may be estimated
  from the energy of the photon emitted as an electron flips its spin state in a strong magnetic field.

  {e-, e+} pair creation in high energy photon scattering is taken as evidence that the electron (and the positron)
  each contain half a photon's worth of energy as a raised electrical potential.
  Our model for the pair creation event requires a photon's causal path to overlap itself twice.
  This attempt to impose 2 magnetic polarisations on one point in space at a single time breaks the causal path.

  This causes the points to bifurcate in time, one half of each point is pushed off the current time
  plain into the future and the other into the past. These bifurcated points are presumably the smallest thing
  capable of holding an electromagnetic polarisation (a torsion field) and a causal link for a charging current
  (we call this the \textit{g-bit} pronounced 'gobit').

  The fact that space time exhibits chirality indicates the bifurcating points have shape.
  The paper argues that the energy released during an electron spin flip is a measure of the size of a \textit{g-bit}
  and this is a likely value for the length scale at which space time is quantized.

  This model for the quantization of space time exhibits behaviour like wave function collapse and allows
  information (charging currents) to flow backwards in time. The shortest possible time displacement from the
  current time plain is the width of a \textit{g-bit} divided by the speed of light, this gives an
  estimate for the rest mass off a neutrino.