Philosophy Of Religion

Joseph Priestley was a man of many and varied intellectual interests. This thesis surveys his philosophical thought, with a central focus on his philosophical theology. The subject can be divided into two parts, natural theology and moral theology. Priestley's natural theology is a perhaps unique attempt to combine and harmonize materialism, determinism and theism, under the auspices of Newtonian methodology. His materialism is based on three arguments: that interaction between matter and spirit is impossible; that a dynamic theory of matter breaks down the active/passive dichotomy assumed by many dualists; and that Newton's "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy" require the rejection of the "hypothesis" of the soul. His determinism arises from his theory of causation. He attempts to show that the only acceptable account of causation is one in which every cause is invariably followed by the same effect, and that libertarianism violates this central assumption of scientific thought. His theism rests on the Argument from Design. He defends the Argument by trying to show that none of the alternatives to Design advanced in Hume's Dialogues concerning Natural Religion constitute a plausible scientific hypothesis. His critics accused his synthesis of materialism, determinism and theism of leading to atheism or pantheism. His defence against these charges is that his system is essentially theistic, and that its ontology is determined by the Argument from Design. Priestley's moral theology is also in part a response to Hume's Dialogues. He offers a number of replies to the "problem of evil". Evil and adversity heighten our appreciation of good; they are a consequence of the finitude of the creation; they follow from the desirability of having a world governed by general laws; and they make possible the achievement of moral character. Character-formation is his main defence, and his methodology requires him to show that adversity leads more often than not to positive results. This requirement is embodied in his progressivist philosophy of history. History, he holds, exhibits temporal purpose and Design, just as nature exhibits atemporal purpose and Design. Priestley's political thought can be seen as arising from his moral theology, mediated by the notions of "luxury", which he regards as morally harmless, and "idleness", which is the main source of moral evil. His combination of liberalism and radicalism is examined both for internal consistency and as a response to the events of his day, ending with the French Revolution. Priestley is interesting partly for his unorthodoxy, partly for the interconnectedness of his diverse concerns, and partly because he debated with distinguished contemporaries. Throughout the thesis his views are juxtaposed with those of Hume, Reid, Price, Boscovich, Burke and a number of other thinkers.

This chapter provides a brief characterization of Immanuel Hermann Fichte’s anthropological and psychological project. After a biographical sketch and an examination of the intellectual context in which Fichte develops his project, this chapter provides a depiction of Fichte’s conception of anthropology and psychology as two different but continuous moments of an empirically founded speculative philosophy of the human soul. It is shown that Fichte conceives of his psychology as a history of the development of consciousness in the thinking, feeling, and willing activities of the human soul.

This is Chapter 7 of a book called 'Living, Minding World,' which I am publishing chapter by chapter as I do a final edit. It's subtitle is 'where science and religion overlap . . .,' and its over-all thesis is that the ancients were correct to see a kind of intention and intelligence in Nature but went wrong when they interpreted that volition on the analogy of a human king or emperor. This was a fruitful mistake as it suggested the possibility that humans could “read the mind of God in the Book of Nature,” thereby contributing to the launch of science as distinct from religion and philosophy. But it was also deeply misleading; and it's even more so today, given the state of current knowledge.
Today we're in a position to see a kind of intelligence at work in our best understanding of the physical universe – in quantum field, theory, cosmology, genetics and evolutionary biology. We study that intelligence under labels like 'self-organization,' 'autopoiesis,' 'least action' and 'emergence,' and we begin to see ourselves as tentative by-products of self-organization, and not as Lords of Creation, appointed so by an Almighty God. It appears now that all the intelligence needed to account for the world's complexity was inherent from the beginning in that world itself. No external 'watchmaker' was needed.

The men turned away and went toward Sodom, but Abraham remained standing before the LORD.23 Then Abraham approached him and said: "Will you sweep away the righteous with the wicked?24 What if there are fifty righteous people in the city? Will you really sweep it away and not spare the place for the sake of the fifty righteous people in it?25 Far be it from you to do such a thing-to kill the righteous with the wicked, treating the righteous and the wicked alike. Far be it from you! Will not the Judge of all the earth do right?" (Genesis 18: 22-33) Abraham pleaded with us on behalf of the folk of Lot. Lo! Abraham was mild, imploring, penitent.

Given panentheism, when trying to offer a plausible solution to the problem of evil, what is the most promising way forward? In this article, I argue that a panentheist who wants to answer the problem of evil by using the "only way" argument should embrace the metaphysics of process theism. In other words, she ought to be a process-panentheist. Process theism is a version of panentheism, while panentheism generally need not to imply process theism. I shall use the terms "process-panentheist" and "non-processpanentheist" to differentiate adherents of these two forms of panentheism. I examine the "only way" argument as a possible theodicy for panentheists and conclude that it is only a convincing theodicy for the panentheist if (i) she is a process-panentheist, or (ii) she thinks this is the best possible world. If she is a non-process-panentheist or does not think this is the best possible world, the "only way" approach fails to be a coherent theodicy.

Given panentheism, when trying to offer a plausible solution to the problem of evil, what is the most promising way forward? In this article, I argue that a panentheist who wants to answer the problem of evil by using the “only way” argument should embrace the metaphysics of process theism. In other words, she ought to be a process-panentheist. Process theism is a version of panentheism, while panentheism generally need not to imply process theism. I shall use the terms “process-panentheist” and “non-process-panentheist” to differentiate adherents of these two forms of panentheism. I examine the “only way” argument as a possible theodicy for panentheists and conclude that it is only a convincing theodicy for the panentheist if (i) she is a process-panentheist, or (ii) she thinks this is the best possible world. If she is a non-process-panentheist or does not think this is the best possible world, the “only way” approach fails to be a coherent theodicy.

The purpose of this paper is to widen the discussion on worship and question the assumption that only a personal God can be worthy of worship. Within philosophy of religion, the contemporary debate on worship axiomatically assumes that only a personal God is worthy of worship and a conception of God tends to only be regarded as religiously adequate if the god in question is worthy of worship. In this paper, I focus on monistic non-personal pantheism: a conception of the divine as a non-personal Unity. The analysis looks to the "radical model" of worship outlined by George Chryssides and the theory of the numinous by Rudolf Otto. The radical model for worship does not accept that only a personal being can be worthy of worship. The article shows that Otto's theory of the numinous can be used to bridge the gap between non-personal, and personal, conceptions of God/the divine. In other words, even if we accept Otto's theory of the holy and the numinous we cannot draw t...

This thesis argues that the historical figure now worshiped as “Christ” was a Roman-invented counterfeit designed to erase and replace the revolutionary, anti-monetary movement founded by Judas the Galilean and his brother James the Just. Drawing upon the Dead Sea Scrolls, suppressed early church writings, and the work of scholars like Robert Eisenman, this study exposes how the so-called “Fourth Philosophy”—a spiritual-communal resistance rooted in Pythagorean principles and Torah-observant purity—posed the most existential threat ever faced by the Roman imperial economy. In response, Roman and Temple authorities collaborated to forge a new religious identity: a pacified, Rome-compatible “Christ” figure inserted retroactively into sacred texts and used to reset time itself. This fraud, attributed in part to the apostle Paul—whose teachings subverted the Torah and glorified submission to empire—resulted in the global dominance of a counterfeit messiah whose attributes more closely align with the archetype of Belial, the deceiver warned against in both the Dead Sea Scrolls and the letters of Paul himself. By recovering the suppressed legacy of James the Just and the anti-money revolution at Qumran, this work reveals the catastrophic consequences of the “Christ” deception on human consciousness, autonomy, and historical memory, and offers a path toward awakening by confronting the fraud that reset time.

ABSTRACT
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
This document includes my formal letter to the Washington State Bar Association responding to questions posed by Disciplinary Counsel in ODC File No. 24-01883. At issue is whether a lawyer acting under a religious calling — through a faith-based legal ministry — can be disciplined for advancing legal arguments in accordance with ecclesiastical purpose.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

This response explains the structure and mission of the Church of the Gardens and SLAC (its legal auxiliary), and how my role as Church Advocate is defined not by commercial contract but by spiritual calling.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

The attached preliminary responses (Exhibit A) offer a question-by-question reply and contextualize my representation of those the Church exists to serve.
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

I am publishing this not only to respond publicly and transparently to state authorities, but also to preserve a record of conscience-based legal advocacy. My hope is that others around the world — lawyers, judges, believers, and seekers of justice — will read, reflect, and discern for themselves whether a lawyer may also be a minister of truth.

The axiology of theism concerns the question of whether God's existence would be a good thing. Pro-theists say yes, and anti-theists say no. This paper extends the axiology of theism to the realm of epistemology: would God's existence be an epistemically good thing? It concludes in favor of epistemic pro-theism.

A topic of recent interest involves the nature of theistic faith, and in particular, the boundaries of such faith. For example, philosophers have taken opposing positions on whether atheists and agnostics can have theistic faith. I consider a related question: whether anti-theists, who think God's existence would be a bad thing, can have faith. I argue for a negative answer, although with several caveats.

This paper outlines a comprehensive framework for creating a unified algorithm and system explicitly designed for ethical AI, known as the Unified Moral AI System. While humans possess the capacity for morality, we do not always act by it. The determining factors include individual character, contextual influences, and the values we hold dear. Throughout the annals of recorded history, numerous influential teachers and thinkers have sought to illuminate the complex nature of moral decisions. While our understanding of ethical questions may have evolved over the centuries, the foundational elements appear to be consistent, even if the moral framework predates documentation. A moral choice is a decision based on deeply held beliefs about what constitutes right and wrong behaviour. Such choices often surface in situations where one's core values, ethical principles, or moral convictions are at stake, requiring individuals to consider more than just their immediate benefits or personal interests; they must strive to act in a way they perceive as morally just. The proposed system combines three essential components: inverse reinforcement learning (IRL), multi-objective optimisation (MOO), and symbolic reasoning. At its core, Inverse Reinforcement Learning (IRL) enables the system to learn actively from human behaviours and decisions, thereby identifying ethical values. By observing societal norms and moral choices, the system can assess what is deemed "good" or "bad" across various contexts. Multi-Objective Optimization (MOO) addresses the complexities arising from conflicting goals in moral decisionmaking. This approach enables the system to balance priorities, including public safety, environmental concerns, and personal freedoms, facilitating informed and justifiable decisionmaking. Symbolic Reasoning plays a crucial role by providing transparency and accountability in the AI's decision-making processes. By employing transparent and interpretable logic, stakeholders can review and understand the system's decisions, enhancing trust and promoting ethical oversight.

Abstrak:

"Buku Qatrah al-Aqlām karya Mohamad Mahrusillah Zarkasyi merupakan karya integratif yang menggabungkan tiga kerangka epistemologis: sufisme klasik, tradisi spiritual Timur, dan temuan ilmiah modern. Melalui pendekatan multidisipliner, buku ini mengeksplorasi hakikat eksistensi manusia, struktur kesadaran, dan hubungan antara mikrokosmos (diri manusia) dengan makrokosmos (alam semesta). Berakar pada pemikiran sufistik seperti konsep Wahdat al-Wujūd (Kesatuan Eksistensi) dan hierarki spiritual (Nāsūt, Malakūt, Jabarūt), buku ini juga membuka dialog dengan tradisi Hindu-Buddha (sistem chakra) dan Taoisme (prinsip yin-yang), serta memvalidasi gagasan spiritual melalui neurosains dan psikologi transpersonal.

Kajian ini menitikberatkan pada tiga aspek utama: (1) Trilogi Kesaksian dalam sufisme (syahādah, risālah, wilāyah) sebagai sistem kehidupan spiritual; (2) konvergensi antara sufisme dan tradisi Timur dalam memahami struktur tubuh dan praktik meditasi; serta (3) validasi ilmiah terhadap efek dzikir dan meditasi terhadap neuroplastisitas otak dan kesadaran. Buku ini menawarkan sintesis visioner yang menjembatani spiritualitas dan sains, relevan bagi akademisi, praktisi, dan pencari makna hidup di era modern".

Kata kunci: sufisme, neurosains, psikologi transpersonal, kesadaran, integrasi sains-spiritualitas.

Qatrah al-Aqlām karya Mohamad Mahrusillah Zarkasyi merupakan sebuah karya integratif yang menarik, menggabungkan tiga kerangka epistemologis utama: sufisme klasik, tradisi spiritual Timur, dan temuan ilmiah modern. Dengan pendekatan multidisipliner, buku ini menyajikan analisis mendalam tentang hakikat eksistensi manusia, struktur kesadaran, dan dinamika hubungan antara mikrokosmos (diri manusia) dan makrokosmos (alam semesta). Di satu sisi, buku ini mengakar kuat dalam warisan sufistik, khususnya pemikiran Ibn 'Arabi dan Al-Ghazali, melalui konsep Wahdat al-Wujūd (Kesatuan Eksistensi) dan hierarki spiritual manusia yang mencakup alam Nāsūt, Malakūt, dan Jabarūt. Di sisi lain, ia juga membuka ruang dialog dengan tradisi spiritual Timur, seperti sistem chakra dalam Hindu-Buddha dan prinsip yin-yang dalam Taoisme, sebagai cara untuk memahami keseimbangan energi psikofisik. Menariknya, buku ini tidak berhenti pada kajian teologis dan simbolik semata, tetapi juga mencoba memvalidasi gagasan spiritual melalui pendekatan ilmiah kontemporer. Temuan neurosains modern dan psikologi transpersonal menjadi landasan tambahan yang memperkuat klaim sufistik, seperti pembahasan tentang neuroplastisitas dan pengaruh meditasi atau dzikir terhadap struktur otak, kesadaran, dan empati. Bagian kedua buku ini secara khusus menjadi fokus tulisan ini, dengan mengeksplorasi bagaimana ketiga pendekatan tersebut diintegrasikan untuk merumuskan sebuah pemahaman holistik tentang kehidupan manusia. Kajian ini akan membahas tiga fokus utama: pertama, Trilogi Kesaksian dalam sufisme yang mencakup konsep syahādah, risālah, dan wilāyah sebagai sistem kehidupan manusia; kedua, Konvergensi Tradisi antara sufisme dan ajaran Hindu-Buddha serta Taoisme dalam menjelaskan struktur tubuh, aliran energi, dan praktik meditasi; dan ketiga, Validasi Sains Modern yang menunjukkan bagaimana dzikir dan praktik spiritual lainnya memiliki efek nyata terhadap kesadaran melalui bukti ilmiah. Dengan demikian, Qatrah al-Aqlām tidak hanya memperluas horizon kajian agama dan filsafat, tetapi juga memberikan kontribusi penting dalam menjembatani spiritualitas dan sains, relevan bagi

Referring to major spiritual traditions, transpersonal psychology, neuropsychology, neuroscience, and modern physics, this book identifies and systematically integrates core ideas concerning psychospiritual development.

Integrating Brain, Mind, Soul and Spirit presents neuropsychological research on psychedelics, with reference to mystical experience and Psi/extrasensory perception as an extension of cognitively controlled brain-based homeostasis. The book equates concepts from modern physics with perennial metaphysics concerning intelligent consciousness, evolution, and the transfer of energy and information. It also compares spiritual literature regarding consciousness, spirit-soul, and brain-mind personality to neuropsychological and psychological literature concerning emotion, cognition and altered states of consciousness. Finally, nested neuro-psycho-spiritual control hierarchy is presented as an architecture for systematically integrating, describing, and understanding brain, mind, soul and spirit, and neuro-psycho-spiritual development.

En 1921, Alexandre Koyré présente un mémoire intitulé L’idée de Dieu et les preuves de son existence chez Descartes pour l’obtention du diplôme de la section des Sciences religieuses de l’EPHE. La recherche a été inspirée et dirigée par François Picavet, le maître de Koyré, auquel Étienne Gilson succède en 1921. À peine nommé, Gilson engage le jeune Henri Gouhier dans l’élaboration d’un mémoire de l’EPHE consacré à La pensée religieuse de Descartes. Soutenus à deux ans seulement d’intervalle, en 1921 et en 1923, et respectivement publiés en 1922 et en 1924, les deux ouvrages témoignent de la concurrence dans laquelle se sont trouvés Picavet et Gilson en même temps qu’ils indiquent deux manières différentes de pratiquer l’histoire de la philosophie.

In 1921, Alexandre Koyré presented a dissertation entitled L’idée de Dieu et les preuves de son existence chez Descartes for the diploma of the Religious Sciences section of the EPHE. The research was inspired and directed by François Picavet, the master of Koyré, whom Étienne Gilson succeeded in 1921. Barely appointed, Gilson engaged the young Henri Gouhier in the development of an EPHE dissertation entitled La pensée religieuse de Descartes. Submitted only two years apart, in 1921 and 1923, and respectively published in 1922 and 1924, the two works testify to the competition in which Picavet and Gilson were engaged as they indicate two different ways to practice the history of philosophy.

Educar en la interioridad es una mediación ineludible hoy para la construcción integral de la persona, máxime cuando la cultura contemporánea está caracterizada por la extroversión, la superficialidad y el ruido. A partir de esta tesis, en este artículo se reflexiona acerca de la importancia de adelantar un trabajo formativo con los jóvenes como proceso de adentramiento en su interior. Para ello, se plantea una serie de instrumentos, objetivos y técnicas promotoras de una auténtica interioridad, que favorecen la autoconciencia, la autonomía y la libertad. Palabras clave: educación de la interioridad, instrumentos de interioridad, objetivos de la interioridad, técnicas de interioridad.

In the peripatetic philosophy of Ibn Sina, the statement of the revelation problem, the essence and the foundation is closely connected with the theory of the “prophecy” which was laid Farabi and significantly developed by Ibn Sina. According to the philosopher’s opinion, receiving revelation directly conveys the essence of prophecy, so this prophet is not foreign to human nature. The source of this divine knowledge is Allah, the prophet receives it not from Allah himself, and he does it from the mind that considers active consciousness. The person who receives revelation is in contact with an active mind and such state can be considered as an excellent degree for the personality of the Prophet. However, this is not the end. Adoption of revelation is one of the stages on the way of recovery. Man continues to grow in this way. In his works, Ibn Sina suggests that the basis of the prophetic mission is propaganda. He propagated them all by the revelations, it means, for realization the...

Heidegger worked exclusively within the phenomenological correlation (2) where Bewegung is responsible for Bedeutung and (3) where "the thing itself" is not Sein but Existenz thrown open as (aka appropriated to be) the source of all intelligibility. (4) Ex-sistential Bewegung/Zeitlichkeit is bivalent, not trivalent, and (5) das Gewesen does not mean "what-is-as-having-been" but rather is the retrieved meaning of τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι. (6) Heidegger's focus on individual authenticity elided the pressing issue of social authenticity in the economic and political spheres. (7) The Appendix discusses a claim made by Prof.

A dabber from the last centuries BC bears an inscription of the owner and four graphic units. One of these prove that the so-called triratna symbol was originally not a symbol at all, but a monogram that can be read as namo, "veneration". The other three, fish, flag, and rotating star, have parallels in artistic expressions of many religious communities of ancient India. The fish can be used to understand part of the historical role of the cave ensemble at Barabar, while the rotating star throws light on the world of Indra in the art of Sanchi and Gandhara.

This paper aims to gain a better understanding of the ethics of Galeotto Marzio da Narni, a highly original 15th-century philosopher. Based on his censure and the texts that we have preserved by him, we attempt to bring out the most radical elements of his ethics, namely principally the possibility of attaining salvation in any religion and, more generally, his theory of predestination, in which ethical acts become simply signs of it. It is therefore understandable that his ethics are similar in some respects to the Protestant ethics that would become the bête noire of the Catholic authorities.

This extremely rare super exhaustive book / manual originally published in 1678 is a monumental work of philosophical theology that systematically refutes atheism and material determinism while advocating for the existence of a divine, rational order governing the cosmos. Written as part of the Cambridge Platonist movement, Cudworth engages deeply with ancient and contemporary philosophical traditions, particularly those of Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and later thinkers such as Hobbes and Spinoza. His objective is to dismantle atheistic frameworks, particularly those rooted in Democritean atomism and Epicurean philosophy, which assert that the universe is governed by mere chance and mechanical necessity rather than divine intelligence.

Cudworth structures his argument in a meticulous fashion, first cataloging and analyzing various forms of atheism, from classical antiquity to his own era. He critiques the notion that the universe is the product of self-sustaining material principles and demonstrates how such views inherently undermine moral agency and ethical responsibility. Central to his thesis is the assertion that moral truths are eternal and immutable, existing independently of divine fiat yet fully aligned with the rational nature of God. In this, he opposes voluntarist theological perspectives that suggest moral laws are arbitrarily decreed by God, instead embracing a Platonic realism in which morality and reason are inextricably linked to the divine order of existence.

Another core aspect of Cudworth’s argument is his discussion of "Plastic Nature," an intermediary principle he posits to explain the order and regularity of natural phenomena without resorting to direct divine intervention in every instance. This concept attempts to reconcile the apparent autonomy of natural processes with the overarching governance of divine intelligence. By developing this framework, Cudworth provides a sophisticated alternative to mechanistic materialism, preserving both the intelligibility of the natural world and the necessity of a rational, transcendent cause.

Throughout the work, Cudworth systematically addresses objections to theism and argues against the reductive materialism that was gaining traction in early modern thought. His extensive engagement with both ancient sources and contemporary scientific and philosophical debates makes The True Intellectual System of the Universe a landmark work in the history of metaphysics, theology, and moral philosophy. The volume not only serves as a rigorous defense of theism but also as a crucial text in the intellectual lineage that connects classical philosophy with Enlightenment thought. It remains an essential study for scholars interested in the intersections of religion, metaphysics, and the philosophy of science.
Tags
Philosophy, theology, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, morality, ancient philosophy, classical thought, Cambridge Platonism, Renaissance philosophy, Enlightenment philosophy, Neoplatonism, Platonic realism, Aristotle, Plato, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Democritus, atomism, determinism, materialism, theism, atheism, deism, divine providence, divine intelligence, moral ontology, moral philosophy, voluntarism, rationalism, empiricism, scholasticism, medieval philosophy, early modern thought, Renaissance humanism, natural law, divine command theory, theology of nature, metaphysical necessity, free will, moral responsibility, cosmic order, providentialism, theological determinism, teleology, causality, essence and existence, immutability, divine attributes, omniscience, omnipotence, transcendence, immanence, natural theology, revealed theology, revelation, scripture, biblical exegesis, hermeneutics, faith and reason, rational justification, skepticism, fideism, logic, dialectic, Aristotelian logic, Platonic forms, substance and accident, mind-body problem, dualism, monism, pantheism, panentheism, spiritualism, idealism, realism, nominalism, universals and particulars, ontological argument, cosmological argument, teleological argument, moral argument, theodicy, problem of evil, necessity and contingency, causation, first cause, uncaused cause, divine simplicity, divine perfection, divine foreknowledge, divine intervention, secondary causation, miracle, supernatural, metaphysical speculation, religious epistemology, faith-based knowledge, moral absolutism, moral relativism, objective values, subjective values, existential meaning, theological anthropology, human nature, sin and grace, virtue ethics, deontological ethics, consequentialism, the good, highest good, summum bonum, happiness, eudaimonia, flourishing, spiritual ascent, mystical theology, apophatic theology, cataphatic theology, religious mysticism, esoteric philosophy, eschatology, the soul, immortality, resurrection, eternal life, divine justice, divine mercy, judgment, heaven and hell, afterlife, Christian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Jewish philosophy, Kabbalah, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, alchemy, esoteric traditions, sacred geometry, sacred numbers, metaphysical symbolism, sacred texts, scriptural canon, ancient manuscripts, lost scriptures, Dead Sea Scrolls, Nag Hammadi, church fathers, patristic philosophy, medieval scholasticism, Thomas Aquinas, Augustine, Boethius, Anselm, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, modern philosophy, Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schelling, German idealism, British empiricism, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, skepticism, certainty, knowledge, truth, justified belief, rational intuition, logical analysis, linguistic philosophy, analytic philosophy, philosophy of science, scientific revolution, Newtonian mechanics, Cartesian dualism, mechanistic philosophy, the clockwork universe, teleomechanism, vitalism, organicism, process philosophy, existentialism, absurdism, nihilism, postmodern philosophy, structuralism, deconstruction, phenomenology, Heidegger, Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, philosophy of mind, consciousness, intentionality, self-awareness, inner experience, cognitive science, artificial intelligence, philosophy of language, semiotics, metaphors, allegory, philosophical allegory, sacred allegory, divine inspiration, prophecy, oracles, mystery religions, ancient cults, Pythagoreanism, Orphism, Eleusinian Mysteries, Mithraism, Hermetic philosophy, Neopythagoreanism, Christian mysticism, Sufi mysticism, Buddhist metaphysics, Hindu Vedanta, Taoist philosophy, comparative religion, interfaith dialogue, religious pluralism, universalism, syncretism, religious synthesis, theological discourse, systematic theology, apologetics, church history, religious history, historiography, medieval historiography, intellectual history, history of philosophy, philosophical traditions, canonical texts, ancient wisdom, wisdom literature, ethical treatises, discourse on method, reason and enlightenment, philosophy and theology, divine essence, metaphysical dualism, spiritual metaphysics, unity of knowledge, cosmic unity, natural order, harmony of the spheres, sacred cosmology, divine logos, creation ex nihilo, emanationism, spiritual hierarchy, angelology, demonology, metaphysical evil, war in heaven, fallen angels, satanology, occult philosophy, arcane wisdom, forbidden knowledge, esoteric doctrines, mystic revelations, gnostic teachings, cabalistic insights, secret traditions, initiatic wisdom, illuminated thought, philosophical debates, dialectical reasoning, Socratic method, Aristotelian physics, medieval cosmology, scholastic disputations, theological controversies, doctrine of divine ideas, theory of illumination, Christian Platonism, Neoplatonic synthesis, doctrine of participation, divine archetypes, transcendentals, unity-truth-goodness-beauty, metaphysical speculation, ultimate reality, metaphysical hierarchies, supreme being, first principle, axiology, aesthetics, divine harmony, cosmic intelligence, divine mathematics, sacred proportions, universal reason, integral wisdom, intellectual contemplation, metaphysical ascent, philosophical mysticism, spiritual philosophy, divine vision, higher knowledge, divine wisdom, sacred philosophy, spiritual transcendence, illuminated consciousness, philosophy of divinity, metaphysical truths, spiritual reality, divine mysteries, esoteric metaphysics. Theism, atheism, deism, Cambridge Platonists, Ralph Cudworth, moral realism, divine providence, metaphysics, epistemology, ontology, free will, determinism, plastic nature, teleology, natural law, classical philosophy, Neoplatonism, Aristotelianism, Platonism, Stoicism, skepticism, materialism, atomism, Epicureanism, Democritus, moral absolutism, theological philosophy, Christian apologetics, Old Testament theology, New Testament theology, Logos theology, divine reason, moral law, divine justice, unchanging God, creation theology, providential order, divine intelligence, classical theism, polytheism, idolatry, ancient wisdom, scholasticism, early modern philosophy, Renaissance humanism, Enlightenment rationalism, Hobbesian philosophy, Spinoza, Cartesian dualism, idealism, Kantian ethics, German Idealism, virtue ethics, natural theology, process philosophy, divine omniscience, divine perfection, divine morality, divine causality, classical metaphysics, teleological universe, ontological arguments, cosmology, philosophy of religion, history of philosophy, philosophy of mind, mind-body dualism, rationalism, skepticism vs. faith, theological determinism, divine order, moral epistemology, ethics and metaphysics, law of nature, reason and faith, ancient metaphysics, theological determinism, providence and fate, Christian philosophy, Judeo-Christian tradition, sacred cosmology, religious epistemology, divine will, moral duty, universal morality, comparative theology, scriptural philosophy, religious studies, faith and reason, supernatural morality, divine law, spiritual cosmology, divine essence, rational morality, sacred truth, metaphysical causation, moral causality, divine judgment, mor...

This is Chapter 6 of a book called 'Living, Minding World,' which I am publishing chapter by chapter as I do a final edit. It's subtitle is 'where science and religion overlap . . .,' and its over-all thesis is that the ancients were correct to see a kind of intention and intelligence in Nature but went wrong when they interpreted that volition on the analogy of a human king or emperor. This was a fruitful mistake as it suggested the possibility that humans could “read the mind of God in the Book of Nature,” thereby contributing to the launch of science as distinct from religion and philosophy. But it was also deeply misleading; and it's even more so today, given the state of current knowledge.
Today we're in a position to see a kind of intelligence at work in our best understanding of the physical universe – in quantum field, theory, cosmology, genetics and evolutionary biology. We study that intelligence under labels like 'self-organization,' 'autopoiesis,' 'least action' and 'emergence,' and we begin to see ourselves as tentative by-products of self-organization, and not as Lords of Creation, appointed so by an Almighty God. It appears now that all the intelligence needed to account for the world's complexity was inherent from the beginning in that world itself. No external 'watchmaker' was needed.

The very term "infinite number", shows that it must be a number that is not limited or finite. That is, an infinite number is one that never gets to an end. An infinite continuous quantity (such as a line), is one that never reaches a limit or boundary. Thus, an infinite quantity is an indefinite quantity. Thus, it is not an actual quantity but a potential quantity, i.e., a quantity that is indefinite and can be increased "as much as you want". Thus, there is no actually infinite quantity.

Perkembangan Ilmu Munasabah dan Sumbangannya pada Konsep Kesatuan Tema al-Qur’an Abstrak Ilmu Munasabah ialah salah satu ilmu penting dalam pentafsiran al-Qur’an. Artikel ini bertujuan menganalisis sejarah perkembangan ilmu Munasabah sejak awal kemunculannya sehingga menjadi satu cabang ilmu yang sistematik dalam pentafsiran al-Qur’an pada waktu ini. Kajian berbentuk kualitatif ini menggunakan reka bentuk kajian secara analisis kandungan. Data dikumpul melalui analisis kandungan terhadap karya-karya Ulum al-Qur’an, kitab-kitab tafsir yang mengaplikasikan ilmu Munasabah dan kajian-kajian semasa para sarjana berkenaan dengan ilmu Munasabah. Selanjutnya, data yang diperoleh ini dianalisis secara deskriptif. Dapatan kajian mendapati ilmu Munasabah telah mengalami proses perkembangan dan pematangan sehingga mencetuskan ilmu kesatuan tema surah dan kesatuan tema al-Qur’an itu sendiri. Implikasi kajian menunjukkan pentingnya kefahaman terhadap ilmu Munasabah ini agar para pentafsir al-Qura...

A logically rigorous and textually rooted exposition of Ismāʿīlī apophatic
theology based on the philosophical thought of the most prominent Ismāʿīlī Muslim Neoplatonic philosopher-dāʿīs—Abū Yaʿqūb al-Sijistānī (d. ca. 361/971), Ḥamīd al-Dīn al-Kirmānī (d. ca. 412/1021), al-Muʾayyad al-Shīrāzī (d. 470/1077), Nāṣir-i Khusraw (d. 462/1070), ʿAbd al-Karīm al-Shahrastānī (d. 548/1153), and Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī (d. 672/1274).

My primary purpose is to demonstrate the logical coherence and metaphysical merits of Ismāʿīlī apophasis both as a viable Islamic expression of tawḥīd and as an intellectually compelling formulation of classical theism (also called divine simplicity) in the contemporary philosophy of religion.

The first section of this study will demonstrate that Ismāʿīlīs employed natural theology to prove the existence of God and that their belief in God was rooted in rational argument. The second section focuses on how Ismāʿīlīs articulate the transcendence of God above the physical and spiritual realms through a dual negation that is consistent with the rules of logic. The third section focuses on how Ismāʿīlīs articulate divine simplicity or the absolute oneness of God by negating all attributes from Him through another type of dual negation, which is based on the Neoplatonic semantics of scalar predication. The fourth section deals with the controversial Ismāʿīlī idea that God is beyond existence and non-existence. The fifth and final section shows how Ismāʿīlī apophatic theology still accommodates positive predications about God when they are understood as metonymic descriptions as opposed to literal ones.

I will call "totalitarian" any form of political society that sets no moral limits on the powers of the State. Such societies are well defined by Mussolini's formula: "Nothing outside of the State, above the State, against the State; everything to the State, for the State, in the State." I will call "democratic" any non-totalitarian form of political society. A democratic society does not deny the authority of the State as representative of the body politic and enforcing laws in view of the common good, but it recognizes the presence, in human beings, of something that is outside of the State, above the State, and which it may become necessary to protect against the encroachments of the State. As an instance of such things, I would cite truth. -Étienne Gilson 1 Laws may be promulgated by reason and conscience, the divine monitors within us. They are thus known as effectually, as by words or by writing: indeed they are thus known in a manner more noble and exalted. For, in this manner they may be said to be engraven by God on the hearts of men: in this manner, he is the promulgator as well as the author of natural law. Despotism by an artful use of "superiority" in politicks; and skepticism, by an artful use of "ideas" in metaphysicks, have endeavoured-and their endeavours have frequently been attended with too much success-to destroy all true liberty and philosophy. By their baneful effects, the science of man and the science of government have been poisoned to their very fountains. But those destroyers of others have met, or must meet with their own destruction.

Book Introduction

The scholarly yet multidimensional and original research work, "Shiva Beyond Borders: The Cross-Cultural Evolution of Proto-Shaivism - A Comparative Study of Philosophy, Symbolism, and Global Traditions" written by Dr. Nawa Raj Subba, is truly a text that elucidates the philosophical, cultural, and symbolic significance of Proto-Shaiva traditions in ancient civilisations beyond lines of Indian subcontinent context.

This book places Shiva back on the global map to investigate the correlations in symbolism, rituals, and philosophy all over the world of ancient Africa, Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Middle East, and the Indus Valley, among other early civilisations.

In the first chapter, we offer the background, purpose, methods, and philosophical lens of the book. It examines Shiva’s tripartite role as creator, destroyer, and preserver, interpreting his symbols such as the Lingam, Trident, and Nandi in an interdisciplinary, cross-culturally metaphysical context. Natural elements, yoga elements, and ecological aspects are among the mentioned themes.

Chapter Two examines the prevalence of Proto-Shaiva elements among African civilisations. Chapter 5 then explores horned gods, fertility cults, possession, and syncretism, with an emphasis on parallels between Min (of Egypt) and possibly Shiva. It implies that Shaiva-like customs may have developed independently or by means of intercultural contact.

The third chapter is on Mesopotamia. The chapter explores gods (like Enki) and ritual elements (like lingam-shaped pillars, bull iconography (like Nandi), etc.). The chapter delves into important questions regarding potential links between Mesopotamian practices and Proto-Shaiva traditions, including a comparative assessment of deities like Adad and Enlil.

Chapter Four: Exploration of early Middle Eastern traditions, including the Proto-Elamite and Canaanite cultures. The existence of yogic postures, ascetic practices, sacred woods, and fire rituals indicates thematical resemblances with the esoteric nucleus of Shaivism. We explore these practices through a performative intercultural symbolic prism.
In Chapter Five, you examine archaeological finds linked to the Indus Valley civilisation. The famous Pashupati seal, lingam worship, ritual bathing, yoga postures in artefacts, and water symbolism all hint that Shaiva philosophy probably predated the Vedic period. The chapter offers cross-cultural comparison with ancient traditions.

Chapter Six contains theoretical insights and global parallels. It explores whether Shaiva concepts were developed autonomously or through cultural diffusion and weighs the significance of proto-Shaivism in modern-day religious studies.

The closing chapter ends with a lasting influence of Shaiva thought. It talks about ecological episteme, religious pluralism, and the unifying power of Shaiva philosophy. It is also on a multiscience agenda for future research.

In addition, the appendices include a catalogue of archaeological evidence, works of art, terms, and chronological sequences underpinning the book's research framework.

More than just a rereading of ancient religious and cultural paradigms, Dr. Nawa Raj Subba’s work was a theoretical claim. It reframes Shiva as a global spiritual archetype embedded in the shared experiences, symbols, and metaphysical quests of many ancient civilisations. This book will be a learnt and essential resource for scholars of religion, history, philosophy, and comparative symbols.

Do ut Des — I give so that you may give to others. Conjuring this work, through a choice of carefully selected narrations, thinking styles, aesthetics and emblematic realities, not relative, but not wholly true — I attempted to bring these worlds nearer. Occultosophia consists of ordered narratives from fiftenn years of discoveries on metaphysical paths, contained in a concise form for the niche reader. I had no one to guide me on my journey except for books, insights, and most importantly experiences I have gathered from spiritual inspirations remade into a working philosophy. The main motive was to prepare a small contribution to modern neohermetics in a vast ocean of occult literature. It has elements of hypothetical-inductive-deductive method applied to magical or peak experiences that can serve as a basis for further exploration, a modular philosophical toolkit that can be useful for research, performance, and action.

Este articulo pretende establecer, desde un estudio fenomenologico de la religion, las patologias o enfermedades socio-culturales que atentan contra el lenguaje de la religion donde prima el poder institucional, la corrupcion de sus lideres, el exceso de subjetividad que propicia una religion personal sentimental y los remasterizados fundamentalismos religiosos que se imponen en el escenario de los conflictos violentos. A partir de este ejercicio interpretativo-hermeneutico de la fenomenologia y la sociologia se describen posibles causales y dilemas a los que esta sometida la religion como sistema de credo y que ocultan su papel en la comprension integral de lo humano. Conviene vislumbrar una accion de deconstruccion y desinstitucionalizacion de lo religioso para resignificar a Dios como experiencia, la belleza de la llamada y la construccion comunitaria de la fe.

In this round table article, several scholars look back on the life and work of Henk Vroom, the chief editor of this journal since its inception until his death in 2014, and discuss his impact on them both personally and professionally. Frans Jespers explores Vroom’s typology of religion, while John D’Arcy May looks back on his pioneering work in interreligious relations. Robert Schreiter reminisces on Vroom’s work as editor for Studies in Interreligious Dialogue and the series Currents of Encounter, and Frans Wijsen discusses the collaboration between himself and Vroom on a number of projects. Henry Jansen recounts Vroom’s influence as his mentor and friend on his way of thinking. All contributors to this article combine both professional and personal elements in their appreciation of this scholar.

Modifikasi model visibilitas Kastner untuk benda langit di dekat Matahari telah dilakukan dengan menguji validitasnya pada kasus awal Ramadhan dan Syawal 1437 H serta tujuh kasus yang menjadi rekor dunia. Modifikasi dilakukan untuk memperoleh prediksi visibilitas hilal (Bulan sabit pertama yang dapat diamati pascakonjungsi setelah terbenamnya Matahari) dalam modus pengamatan dengan mata telanjang maupun dengan bantuan alat optik. Modifikasi dilakukan pada kecerahan langit senja dengan menggunakan algoritma Schaefer yang menyertakan faktor fisiologis, lokasi pengamatan dan meteorologi terhadap efek glare untuk pengamatan mata telanjang. Modifikasi akibat penggunaan alat optik berupa faktor-faktor koreksi yang diterapkan pada kecerahan langit dan kecerahan hilal dengan menggunakan model matematika Schaefer yang berupa faktor transmisi cahaya dalam instrumen optik, faktor penglihatan, faktor perbesaran sudut, faktor koreksi teleskop, dan faktor daya pengumpul cahaya. Prediksi yang diha...

Como observó hace mucho tiempo Confucio, filósofo y líder espiritual chino que vivió entre el 551 y el 479 a. C.: «Los signos y los símbolos gobiernan el mundo, no las palabras ni las leyes». La política y la religión modernas han dado la razón a Confucio.
La religión como «sistema de símbolos» es una característica principal de la definición de religión en cinco partes de Geertz, por lo que el simbolismo sería un buen punto de partida, sobre todo porque Chernus sugirió que la definición de Geertz es universalmente aceptada en las ciencias sociales.
Modelo de Simbolismo Social de Elzbieta Halas: Halas afirma que «los grupos existen únicamente sobre la base de la simbolización común de sus miembros». «Los procesos de simbolización… crean un orden social, expresan significado y controlan las acciones. Los símbolos no son autónomos. Constituyen herramientas de acción, que indican y dramatizan las relaciones sociales».
D. Balaganapath observa: «La base de cada cultura y de cada identidad está determinada por su propia expresión simbólica común establecida». El modelo de Erica Hill, definido como “comportamientos sociales dinámicos integrados en la vida cotidiana de los cazadores-recolectores árticos y creencias en los espíritus animales como “relaciones humanas con el mundo natural”; “Sus pensamientos y acciones establecieron y mantuvieron relaciones con las presas y pueden conceptualizarse de manera más productiva como comportamientos sociales dinámicos integrados en la vida cotidiana que como actos rituales privilegiados”. Estas creencias centraron la atención de la comunidad en la actividad de caza y recolección de animales.

Modelo de Emile Durkheim: “Las fuerzas ante las que se inclina el creyente no son simples energías físicas, como las que se presentan a los sentidos y la imaginación; son fuerzas sociales”.

Modelo de Ramón Reyes: “En resumen, un orden social y moral abarca a los vivos, los muertos, las deidades, los espíritus y el entorno en su totalidad”.

Da una vita sto dando i numeri.
Quando parlate di numeri entrate nel mio campo, la Gematria, che è il ramo della Cabala che si occupa di numeri.
Per i cabalisti l'albero della vita consiste di dieci numeri, le Sephiroth, che ne formano la geometria.
La prima Sephirah e’ il numero 1. In questo numero sono nascosti gli altri 9. Rappresenta il grande e immutabile Padre del Tutto: Dio. Aleph. E’ un numero considerato immutabile. E’ considerato il padre di tutti i numeri e quindi di tutte le cose.
Comunque il mattone col quale è costruita la Città di Dio è lo zero fisico, il Logone.

Most modern Christians unconsciously inherit a cosmology shaped more by classical Greek dualism than by the biblical narrative. This has led to an assumption that “heaven” is an immaterial, otherworldly realm, disconnected from the physical cosmos. In contrast, this paper argues that heaven is part of the created order—composed of real, albeit non-baryonic, matter—and that spiritual beings such as angels and demons are not immaterial spirits but conscious agents composed of exotic substance embedded within the same universe we inhabit.
Drawing from Scripture, theology, and speculative insights from physics, this study challenges traditional ontological categories and proposes a unified cosmological framework in which the spiritual and physical interact structurally, not symbolically. Just as Job declares that the heavens are corrupt and even the holy ones are not trusted, and as Revelation foretells the renewal of both heaven and earth, so too this paper explores a model in which the divide between the visible and invisible is not eternal but awaiting glorification. In doing so, it offers a theological response to both scientific mystery and metaphysical longing.

The essay examines the “highest question” at the heart of F.W.J. Schelling’s Philosophische Untersuchungen über das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit, which is introduced in terms of how God, as a moral being, relates to his self-revelation. Focusing in particular on the meaning and role of the definition of God as a moral and self-revealing being, the essay analyses the status of self-revelation as a morally free and necessary “action and act”. The essay aims to demonstrate that the “highest question” is not the problem of theodicy, as it might seem. Rather, the “highest question” emerges through the performative destitution of the latter and turns out to be the issue of why God reveals himself.

mo®e razumjeti tog "vra®jeg kapelana" i upravo stoga i do odgovornosti koju nosi popratna moguaenost manipulacije njime. "Proces je postao svjestan samoga sebe", citira autor velikog populacijskog genetièara Theodosiusa Dobzhanskog. "Vra®ji kapelan je sazrio", ka®e Dawkins, te omoguaeio ljudskoj vrsti nadzor nad vlastitom sudbinom. Što se više potrudimo doznati o evoluciji vrsta, a posebno ljudskoj, njenim fiziološkim, mor-fološkim i bihevioralnim osnovama, to aeemo upravo lakše izbjeaei determinizmima bilo koje vrste, recimo genetske, ali i psihosocijalne, poput potencijala za indoktrinaciju besmislenim i zloaeudnim idejama.

Komentari i bilješke / Comments and Notes O studijima filozofije na Sveuèilištu u Zagrebu (2002/2003) P rijelaz iz 20. u 21. stoljeaee hrvatski je filozofski ®ivot obilje®ilo bujanje raznorodnih filozofskih dogaðanja i djelatnosti: osnivanje novih filozofskih udruga, pojava novih filozofskih èasopisa, pokretanje izdavaèkih kuaea specijaliziranih za filozofsku literaturu, pojava novih srednjoškolskih ud®benika iz filozofije i logike. Visokoškolsko filozofsko obrazovanje nije odstupilo od ovoga trenda: za razliku od dugogodišnje ekskluzivnosti dvaju odsjeka za filozofiju (u Zadru i u Zagrebu), danas u Hrvatskoj postoji ukupno pet visokoškolskih ustanova na kojima se izvodi nastava iz filozofije: (1) Odsjek za filozofiju Filozofskoga fakulteta u Zadru, (2) Odsjek za filozofiju Filozofskoga fakulteta u Rijeci, (3) Odsjek za filozofiju Filozofskoga fakulteta u Zagrebu, (4) Studij filozofije pri Hrvatskim studijima Sveuèilišta u Zagrebu, (5) Studij filozofije pri Filozofskom fakultetu Dru®be Isusove u Zagrebu.

This article confronts the ongoing tragedy of extinction in the Anthropocene from the standpoint of grief and embodied affect. It argues that when confronted with the death of an animal other – be it in public and political settings or in personal encounters of suffering – that silent grief is an embodied form of protest to the triumphalist and anthropocentric narratives of the neoliberal petro-state. In developing an account of suffering and grief from Miguel de Unamuno the argument proceeds to account for an embodied political praxis which subverts political structures aimed at marginalizing animal-others. Finally, in dialogue with Maurice Merleau-Ponty, the article concludes with a reflection on how scholarly activities in the mode of grief might enact relational capacities with the broader animal and natural world.

Il saggio confronta la dottrina di Kant sul «male radicale» (e la relativa interpretazione
kantiana di Gen 3) con la dottrina e l’interpretazione dello stesso tema di Paul
Ricoeur. Il suo scopo è quello di mostrare fino a che punto un’ermeneutica simbolica
e riflessiva della Scrittura e dei dogmi possa risultare più feconda per gli scopi di una
filosofia della religione che intenda superare le sue origini illuministe.

The essay compares Kant’s doctrine on «radical evil» (and the Kantian interpretation
of Genesis 3) with the doctrine and interpretation of the same theme from Paul
Ricoeur. Its purpose is to show the extent to which symbolic and reflective hermeneutics
of Scripture and dogma may be more fruitful for the purposes of a philosophy of
religion that intends to overcome its Enlightenment origins.

Within a compatibilistic sovereignty theodicy as opposed to the related in content, but somewhat different, incompatibilistic free will theodicy, I deduce a theoretical, possible and suitable reason why God created a good world and willingly, allowed human beings to rebel against him. Certain persons will experience evil and atonement Certain persons will have experienced their own sin, suffering, death, and the atoning work of Christ and his resurrection applied to them. Post-mortem and at the resurrection, these would be citizens of the culminated Kingdom of God. These certain persons are biblically the predestined, chosen to embrace, in regeneration (John 3, Titus 3, 1 Peter 1, as examples) the gospel message in belief by grace through faith.

El libro Escríbelas en la tabla de tu corazón. Teología del santuario y la verdad presente, es un estudio en profundidad acerca de los aspectos centrales de la verdad bíblica a la luz del santuario hebreo y su desarrollo en la profecía bíblica.

La comprensión de la verdad en la Biblia viene dada como una revelación que tuvo un cumplimiento profético mayor durante el siglo XIX, gracias a la renovada investigación que recibieron los libros de Daniel y Apocalipsis. Estos señalaron el inicio del "tiempo del fin" y del último periodo de expiación de Cristo en el santuario en los cielos. Fue, a partir de allí, que un sistema de verdades se abrió en plenitud desde el lugar santísimo y que resulta clave para la vida, propósito y misión de la iglesia cristiana al final de la historia.

Este libro es una propuesta que se mueve entre la erudición académica y la sencillez del evangelio, la primera únicamente para respaldar con sólidas evidencias la verdad presente en las lenguas originales de la Biblia, con hallazgos arqueológicos o para poner sobre la mesa de análisis ideologías o movimientos que rodearon la historia bíblica y sus predicciones apocalípticas.

*Soon to be translated into English.

Para comprarlo en Amazon: https://amzn.to/4invuMD

This dissertation thesis thematizes the background, main features and potential of Theodor Adorno’s philosophical method marked as essayism. It outlines Adorno’s core philosophical inspiration and convictions which triggered its formation, attempts to identify the main maxims of its composition and poses Adorno’s conception several questions. First, I ask what the relationship between the author and object of the essay is, once Adorno calls for ‘preponderance of the object’ and ‘limitation of the subject’. Second, I inquire about the connection of essayistic thinking with Adorno’s call for philosophical affectivity and emotionality, providing an interpretation of his understanding of fantasy. Third, I raise the question of how the essayistic method is supposed to help protect intellectual freedom in the late capitalistic world which, according to Adorno, suppresses it and generally numbs desirable intellectual faculties of individuals. Through that, I hope to provide a plastic image of essayism which would, first, help Adorno’s readers to get through his opaque texts and, second, suggest its exceptional intellectual value.