Developmental Psychology

Prevailing beliefs and attitudes encourage researchers and lay people to think almost exclusively in terms of the costs of pessimism and the benefits of optimism. This volume provides a forum for those involved with the study of optimism and pessimism to have an opportunity to examine these beliefs. The result is a critical survey that enables readers to recognize the importance of "balance" in understanding the relative powers of both optimism and pessimism. With a focus on the practical implications for therapy, contributors provide up-to-date reviews of the empirical foundations of these constructs. Particularly valuable is an examination of cultural, biological, and psychological factors related to optimism and pessimism. Through the diversity of views presented, the dynamic interplay between optimism and pessimism that reflects the fundamental tension and harmony found in life is illustrated. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved)

Sociocultural theory has made a great impact on the learning and teaching profession. The theory advocates learning, including L2 acquisition, as a semiotic process where participation in socially mediated activities is essential. It regards instruction as crucial to L2 development and should be geared to the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that is beyond the learner"s actual development level. It believes that learning in an L2 context should be a collaborative achievement and not an isolated individual"s effort where the learner works unassisted and unmediated. This literature review discusses the relevance and implications of this theory to L2 teaching.

The purpose of this study is to describe the use of Fibonacci numbers to model Erikson's eight developmental stages and to formulate practical clinical implications. Using a new method, called the Fibonacci Life-Chart Method (FLCM), all prospective dates based on the Fibonacci sequence between January 1, 2000 and December 31, 2100 were identified. This study found the FLCM produced a developmental pattern characterized by eight recognizable stages. This finding constitutes a new classification of Erikson's eight developmental stages. The present research provides support for Erikson's epigenetic view of predetermined, sequential stages to human development based on the occurrence of Fibonacci numbers in biological cell division and self-organizing systems. This method may help identify populations at risk for psychological disorder, which would allow early intervention. However, a longitudinal study is required to establish its predictive power.

A science of positive subjective experience, positive individual traits, and positive institutions promises to improve quali~. ' of life and prevent the pathologies that arise when life is barren and meaningless. The exclusive focus on pathology that has dominated so much of our discipline results in a model of the human being lacking the positive features that make life worth living. Hope, wisdom, creativity, future mindedness, courage, spirituality, responsibility, and perseverance are ignored or explained as transformations of more authentic negative impulses. The 15 articles in this millennial issue of the American Psychologist discuss such issues as what enables happiness, the effects of autonomy and self-regulation, how optimism and hope affect health, what constitutes wisdom, and how talent and creativity come to fruition.

Sam Harris, in his book The Moral Landscape, argues that “science can determine human values.” Against this view, I argue that while secular moral philosophy can certainly help us to determine our values, science—at least as that word is commonly understood—must play a subservient role. To the extent that science can “determine” what we ought to do, it is only by providing us with empirical information, which can then be slotted into a chain of deductive (moral) reasoning. The premises of such reasoning, however, can in no way be derived from the scientific method: they come, instead, from philosophy—and common sense.

In recent decades, student centered pedagogy has provided serious challenges to traditional ―lecture-and-test‖ modes of education in colleges and universities. Advocates of student-centered pedagogy generally proceed from the constructivist position that maintains that learners construct their understandings through their actions and experiences on the world. Student-centered thinking has spawned a burgeoning interest in the use of a variety of different active learning methods in and out of the classroom. These include collaborative learning, experiential learning, problem-based learning, and a variety of other pedagogical methods. However, the theory and practice of student-centered pedagogy is not without its problems. ―Student centered‖ learning is often defined in contradistinction to ―teacher-centered‖ pedagogy. The idea that students must be active in the construction of knowledge is often understood to imply a diminishing role for the teacher in the learning process. Teachers are called upon to relinquish singular claims to authority or power in the classroom. As a result, the role of the teacher becomes recast as one of ―coach‖ or ―facilitator‖. In this paper, I argue that the student/teacher-centered dichotomy is built upon a false premise -- namely that it is possible to parse off the active role of the student from the socio-cultural activities of which the student and teacher are a part. An alternative approach is based upon the socio-cultural-constructivist idea that learning is a form of guided participation in socio-cultural activity. From this view, knowledge in any given discipline is the historical product of socio-cultural processes that have evolved over long periods of time. Such knowledge is preserved and communicated through the cultural vehicle of language. It follows that learning within any given discipline requires mastery of the language-based meanings that define disciplinary knowledge and practice. Such knowledge can only be acquired through active participation in language-mediated learning activities that are structured by more expert individuals. All learning is thus viewed as a form of doing. Pedagogy becomes a task of articulating learning goals and identifying the forms of doing that promote development toward those goals.

Our lack of awareness of Being results in bewildering experience. The intrinsic inner radiance, the inner light of Being arises out of primordial luminous spaciousness, the unbound openness of unbound pure potentiality. When this primordial ground of Being is veiled and obscured by the lack of experiential awareness, we can be locked into dualistic experiences, and consequently the non-dual nature of the field of Being is experientially foreclosed. The sense of indivisibility of all phenomena and awareness is experientially foreclosed. The capacity to see into, feel into and see through the lucidity of phenomena as the very field of Being becomes foreclosed and densified. We then live contained in mind alone. There is no experience of the field of Being. Without the field of Being we easily become things and objects both to our self and to others.

Donald Winnicott's radical existential psychoanalytic understanding of transitional awareness and transitional relatedness is an amazing and little used doorway for today's psychotherapist and psychoanalyst. In today's cognitive clinical culture we have become cognitions tampering with cognitions. Life as cognition. Existential Ontology Winnicott's creative understanding of our capacity for transitional awareness and transitional relatedness intertwines both our personal psychology and our innermost experience of our own existential ontology. Transitional knowingness intertwines both our mind and our primordial awareness field. Our field of awareness knows the field of Being since awareness is the field of Being. Transitional awareness intertwines both our mind and our psyche. Donald Winnicott's phenomenological understanding of the self radicalizes our sense of self from being a representational picture or cognitive affective schema or synthesis of disparate psychological part's to a fluid sense of self as a direct experiential felt sense of ongoing continuity of Being. Our knowingness though the medium of awareness, opens for us the direct knowing of the experience of Being. The experience of Being is for us our sense of natural spirituality. Our liminal transitional awareness field opens us into the immediate ongoing intimate experience of Being. This experience of Being is of Being within our very own self and of Being within our very own relational life-world. Ordinary Personhood We, as a most ordinary person, can experience the unfolding movement of the experiencing of Being within our own self as our self, and simultaneously, the unfolding experiencing of our own being as the being-ness of Being which is the Being of the world. As we experience the Being .

Recent theorizing in moral psychology extends rationalist models by calling attention to social and cultural influences . Six studies using adolescents, university students, and adults measured the associations among the self-importance of moral identity, moral cognitions, and behavior. The psychometric properties of the measure were assessed through an examination of the underlying factor structure (Study 1) and convergent, nomological, and discriminant validity analyses (Studies 2 and 3). The predictive validity of the instrument was assessed by examinations of the relationships among the self-importance of moral identity, various psychological outcomes, and behavior (Studies 4, 5, and 6). The results are discussed in terms of models of moral behavior, social identity measurement, and the need to consider moral self-conceptions in explaining moral conduct.

The literature on empathy, primarily from counseling and psychotherapy and secondarily from social and developmental psychology, is reviewed. Obstacles that may account for theoretical confusions and empirical difficulties in studying empathy are highlighted. The decrease in empathy research in recent years appears attributable to the lack of clear focus and effective research tools as well as the shift in interest from empathy to other concepts such as the working alliance. It is argued that there is a need to return to studying empathy. Researchers should distinguish between dispositional and experiential empathy and between intellectual empathy and empathic emotions and indicate whether they are examining therapist or client experience of empathy. Suggestions for future research are offered.

What is your view after reading this paper? Email your views to collegemhc@gmail.com

THE HEART OF THE MATTER:
The idea that every conceived human being is naturally evil, guilty, a sinner, or sinful, is itself child abuse and a blasphemous charge against God.

Questions about the nature of normative and atypical development in adolescence have taken on special significance in the last few years, as scientists have begun to recast old portraits of adolescent behavior in the light of new knowledge about brain development. Adolescence is often a period of especially heightened vulnerability as a consequence of potential disjunctions between developing brain, behavioral and cognitive systems that mature along different timetables and under the control of both common and independent biological processes. Taken together, these developments reinforce the emerging understanding of adolescence as a critical or sensitive period for a reorganization of regulatory systems, a reorganization that is fraught with both risks and opportunities.

In analyzing R’s life, Erik Erikson’s epigenetic psychological theory seemed the most appropriate to detail R’s life cycle from infancy to adulthood. According to Erickson, the psychological growth of any individual is similar to that of the growth process of an embryo. In the simplest terms, an embryo is an organism (e.g. a human being) in its earliest stages of development. In this stage, the organism is unrecognizable until a period passes by, and throughout that period, each stage of its development depends on the previous stage.

A cultural-historical approach to distributed cognition Michael Cole and Yrjö Engeström Michael Cole and Yrjö Engeström A cultural-historical approach It was supposedly Goethe who observed that everything has been thought of before; the task is to think of it again in ways that are appropriate to one's current circumstances. Whoever made the remark, we have thought of it often in relation to the current wave of discovery that both the content and process of thinking (however those slippery terms are interpreted) are distributed as much among individuals as they are packed within them.

The preponderance of social networking sites such as Facebook, Youtube and others, have altered the way in which people interact socially in the real world. In fact, much more can be said about the impact of these modern technologies on the basic structure of human personality: the id, ego, and super-ego. The paper proposes a psychosological theory that modifies Sigmund Freud's (1923) basic relationships and interactions of the id, ego and super-ego in his Psycho-analytic Theory. It is claimed that an individual's engagement with virtual reality (social networking) portends a segregation of the super-ego from the id and ego. In a virtual world, social interactions are not constrained by societal norms and standards (super-ego) so that the tendency is for the id (instincts and drives) to merge with the ego (what is real) and they become indistinguishable. The sociological implications of this theory are also explored in this paper.

Drawing on concepts from ethology, cybernetics, information processing, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysts, John Bowlby formulated the basic tenets of the theory. He thereby revolutionized our thinking about a child's tie to the mother and its disruption through separation, deprivation, and bereavement. Mary Ainsworth's innovative methodology not only made it possible to test some of Bowlby's ideas empirically hut also helped expand the theory itself and is responsible for some of the new directions it is now taking. Ainsworth contributed the concept of the attachment figure as a secure base from which an infant can explore the world. In addition, she formulated the concept of maternal sensitivity to infant signals and its role in the development of infant-mother attachment patterns.

Bu çalışmada, Jose Mauro De Vasconcelosun “Şeker Portakalı” romanının ana
karakteri Zeze’nin, Piaget’in bilişsel gelişim evrelerine göre (İşlem öncesi dönem, Duyumotor
dönem, Somut işlemler dönemi, Soyut işlemler dönemi) bir incelemesi yapılmıştır.
Temelde Piaget’in kuramının bu roman kahramanında ne kadar karşılık bulduğunu anlamaya
yönelik yapılan bu araştırmada, kitaptan yapılan alıntılara yer verilmiş ve kuram
desteklenmiştir.

We have two ways of knowing. Our mind knows forms, things, both subtle and gross. Faces, hands, buildings, trees, math formulas, mind knows subject and the mind knows otherness. The mind knows dualities, the mind knows me and you, us and them, and this and that. Mind knows time, mind knows the past, the present and the sense of the future. The mind knows things and entities, the mind knows beings, infinite numbers of beings and things. The mind knows difference. The mind thinks conceptually, feels affectively, imagines through imagery, the mind has sense and the mind has memory. The mind knows dualistically.

This case study attempts to determine the lived experiences of early pregnancy among high and low performing students in terms of the causes, effects, challenges and their coping mechanisms. The naturalistic paradigm was used in the study with the purposively chosen informants with varied tools to cross-check their responses. Results show that curiosity, lack of sexual knowledge, financial and family problems and uncontrolled emotions cause pregnancy among teenagers. Teenage mothers face a lot of challenges after pregnancy like providing proper care and needs of their child. High performing teenage mothers are college levels and work for a living to support the needs of their child. Low performing teenage mothers ended up as housewives. Teenage mothers have less possibility to finish their studies after engaging in early pregnancy. Taking care of the baby and providing financial assistance are challenges they encountered and tried to cope up with. The academic performance, the financial status and support of the family of teenage mothers determine if they can pursue their studies and achieve their dreams in life. Sex and sexuality education should not just be a concept but should be developed further as a complete discipline and much more research should be conducted to that regard.

The spider carries out opera lions reminiscent of a weaver and the boxes which bees build in the sky could disgrace the work of many architects. But even the worst architect differs from the most able bee from the very outset in that before he builds n box out of boards he has already constructed it in his head. At the end of the work process he obtains a result which already existed in his mind before he began to build. The architect not only changes the form given to him by nature, within the constraints imposed by nature, he also carries out a purpose of his own which defines the means and the character of the activity to which he must subordinate his will.

This chapter summarizes five neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development. Namely, the theories of Juan Pascual-Leone, Robbie Case, Graeme s. Halford, Kurt W. Fischer, and my theory. The first three of these theories emphasize the role of working memory as a factor of transition across the main developmental stages of thought from birth to adolescence. Fischer’s theory emphasizes the social and the learning dimensions of cognitive development. Finally, my theory in addition to these factors, integrates considerations about special processes in different domains of thought and also the role of self-awareness and self-regulation in development and individual differences. The theories are then compared and evaluated. The chapter is addressed to advance undergraduate and graduate students and researchers in developmental cognitive science.

My initial work on the relationship between experience, self, and self-consciousness dates back to the late nineties (cf. Zahavi 1999, 2000a), where I started defending the view that all three notions are interconnected and that a theory of consciousness that wishes to take the subjective dimension of our experiential life seriously also needs to operate with a minimal notion of self. Further elaboration of this early work led to the book Subjectivity and Selfhood from 2005. During the decade that followed, I continued to refine the position and also started to respond to various criticisms that the view encountered (cf. Zahavi 2007, 2009, 2011a, 2011b, 2012), eventually bringing these different efforts together in the book Self and Other which was published in 2014. The criticisms and suggested revisions offered by Ratcliffe as well as Ciaunica and Fotopoulou in their contributions to this volume can to some extent be seen as representing a new phase in the discussion, not only because they engage with the recent arguments of Self and Other, but also because their criticism differs from the criticism offered in the past by for instance advocates of a no-self view, narrativists, or phenomenal externalists. Rather than denying the existence of the minimal self, their concern is rather with its proper characterization and interpersonal constitution. I appreciate their revisionary ideas, and I am grateful to the editors for having urged me to offer a response, thereby giving me the opportunity to clarify a few aspects of my own view.

The aim of this theoretical investigation was to provide instructors at the college level with material that they might use to introduce humanistic developmental theory to students of child psychology. The study had several phases. First, the theories of child development embedded within the works of Carl R. Rogers and Karen Horney were articulated and outlined separately. Next, the highly significant structural features of the theories were synthesized to form a unified humanistic theory of child development. Finally, there was a brief discussion of the strengths and weakness of the humanistic developmental perspective derived from Rogers's and Horney's works.

"Is the self narratively constructed? There are many who would answer yes to the question. Dennett (1991) is, perhaps, the most famous proponent of the view that the self is narratively constructed, but there are others, such as Velleman (2006), who have followed his lead and developed the view much further. Indeed, the importance of narrative to understanding the mind and the self is currently being lavished with attention across the cognitive sciences (Dautenhahn, 2001; Hutto, 2007; Nelson, 2003). Emerging from this work, there appear to be a
variety of ways in which we can think of the narrative construction of the self and the relationship between the narrative self and the embodied agent. I wish to examine two such ways in this paper. The first I shall call the abstract narrative account, this is because its proponents take the
narrative self to be an abstraction (Dennett, 1991; Velleman, 2006). Dennett, for example, refers to the self as a centre of narrative gravity, to be thought of as analogous to a mathematical conception of the centre of gravity of an object. The second I shall call the embodied narrative account and this is the view that the self is constituted both by an embodied consciousness whose experiences are available for narration and narratives themselves, which can play a variety of roles in the agent’s psychological life."

Background. While oral language seems crucial to written language development there has been relatively little research on explicit links between the two.
Aims. This paper reviews and explores the links between oral language skills and the development of writing with particular reference to children with specific language impairment (SLI).
Arguments. Children with SLI are poor at writing and we review evidence from our own and others work showing how oral language and oral vocabulary skills, in particular, are closely associated with written language production in this population. We detail a set of longitudinal analyses showing close relationships between oral language, writing, and other literacy related skills.
Conclusions. We conclude that oral language skill does constrain the development of writing. Children with SLI are very poor at writing. Whether this is due to their general language level or a problem in a specific area such as vocabulary, grammar, or spelling remains to be seen.
We discuss the implications for educational provision of this set of research findings.

"Background Emotional neglect can be characterized as cold or critical parenting and denotes a parent intentionally or unintentionally overlooking the signs that a child needs comfort or attention and ignoring its emotional needs. Parental emotional neglect is widely posited as an antecedent of anxiety disorder, with attachment researchers arguing for anxious–ambivalent attachment style as a mediating factor. Method Childhood experience of neglect and abuse, including antipathy (cold, critical parenting), attachment styles, and anxiety disorders were assessed in a high-risk sample of 160 adolescents and young adults by means of interview measures. Results Antipathy was associated with 12-month prevalence of anxiety disorders in the sample. Anxious–ambivalent attachment scores statistically mediated the relationship between antipathy and anxiety disorders. Conclusions Clinicians treating anxiety disorders in youth need to consider that emotional neglect in childhood in the form of antipathy could lead to anxious–ambivalent internal working models operating around fear of rejection and fear of separation."

The phenomenology of the unfolding elaboration of our capacity to know Being directly and as well as our experience to know Being through beings is the focus of this paper. I will focus on the phenomenological elaboration of our knowing of mind; the phenomenological knowing of direct awareness and the consequent simultaneous intertwining of knowing through mind and through awareness. This union of our mind and our awareness allows the knowing of Being through beings and knowing the indivisibleness of beings and Being. As the Dakini said to Dudjom Lingpa " You and I are indivisible. " Our paper begins with a phenomenological elaboration of the Two Ways of Knowing. This is a necessary and a most useful distinction for our knowing of both beings and Being simultaneously. The Two Ways of Knowing: Mind Knowing Form and Awareness Knowing Being Mind Knows Form! Our mind knows forms, and things, both subtle and gross. Our mind knows beings and things. Our mind knows subject and our mind knows otherness. Our mind knows dualities .Our mind knows me and you, us and them and this and that. Mind knows time. Our mind knows the sense of the past, the sense of present and a sense of the future. The mind knows entities. Our mind knows difference. Our mind thinks conceptually, feels affectively, imagines through images, the mind senses sensation and the mind has memory. The mind always knows dualistically. Our mind thinks and knows through thoughts, our mind feels and knows through feelings, our mind has sensations, knows through sensation and our mind has fantasy and knows through imagination. The knowledge of our mind is mediated through conceptualization and representational thinking. Our mind can even know the mind of others. However, our mind cannot know Being and our mind cannot know the Being-ness of beings. Our mind cannot experience Being. Our mind cannot know Being directly. Awareness Knows Being! Our awareness directly knows Being and our awareness can directly know the Being-ness of beings. Being itself is not a being and Being manifests beings, infinite numbers of beings. Being manifests Being within beings as their own being. Being itself is not an entity and Being is not a being. Being is not a thing. Being is non-duality. Being knows the non-duality of everything and anything. Being is oneness and pervasiveness. Being is openness, and Being self-manifests as radiant light. Being is compassionate creative resonance. Being manifests presence. Our awareness can know the indivisible presence of the Being-ness of beings within beings and between beings. Being manifests duality, although Being is completely non-dual. By becoming aware of awareness, we experience primordial awareness which is the ground of being, which is Being itself. Awareness is Being. Awareness is Being knowing Being. Being knows Being and is the Being-ness of all the beings. Awareness can be timeless as well as awareness can be in time. Awareness can be timelessness and in time simultaneously.

Recently, there has been an emergence of literature on the mechanisms through which parents transmit information, values, and perspectives about ethnicity and race to their children, commonly referred to as racial or ethnic socialization. This literature has sought to document the nature of such socialization, its antecedents in parents' and children's characteristics and experiences, and its consequences for children's well-being and development. In this article, the authors integrate and synthesize what is known about racial and ethnic socialization on the basis of current empirical research, examining studies concerning its nature and frequency; its child, parent, and ecological predictors; and its consequences for children's development, including ethnic identity, self-esteem, coping with discrimination, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being. The authors also discuss conceptual and methodological limitations of the literature and suggest directions for future research. 747 1 Our review covers articles from peer-reviewed journals and book chapters in psychology, sociology, and related fields, which were identified by searching PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, ERIC, JSTOR, Ingenta, LexisNexis, and ProQuest between 1975 and 2005 using the keywords "racial socialization" and "ethnic socialization" and combinations such as "parenting and ethnic identity" in the title, abstract, keyword, or full-text listings. We perused citation lists for other articles that seemed relevant and searched the Social Sciences Citation Index for recent work that cited key articles. This iterative process yielded over 50 empirical articles. Although the literature seems ripe for an integrative review, too few articles exist to warrant a formal meta-analysis.

Recently, there has been an emergence of literature on the mechanisms through which parents transmit information, values, and perspectives about ethnicity and race to their children, commonly referred to as racial or ethnic socialization. This literature has sought to document the nature of such socialization, its antecedents in parents' and children's characteristics and experiences, and its consequences for children's well-being and development. In this article, the authors integrate and synthesize what is known about racial and ethnic socialization on the basis of current empirical research, examining studies concerning its nature and frequency; its child, parent, and ecological predictors; and its consequences for children's development, including ethnic identity, self-esteem, coping with discrimination, academic achievement, and psychosocial well-being. The authors also discuss conceptual and methodological limitations of the literature and suggest directions for future research. 747 1 Our review covers articles from peer-reviewed journals and book chapters in psychology, sociology, and related fields, which were identified by searching PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, ERIC, JSTOR, Ingenta, LexisNexis, and ProQuest between 1975 and 2005 using the keywords "racial socialization" and "ethnic socialization" and combinations such as "parenting and ethnic identity" in the title, abstract, keyword, or full-text listings. We perused citation lists for other articles that seemed relevant and searched the Social Sciences Citation Index for recent work that cited key articles. This iterative process yielded over 50 empirical articles. Although the literature seems ripe for an integrative review, too few articles exist to warrant a formal meta-analysis.

The doctoral dissertation is defined as an original contribution to a field. By definition, this makes the dissertation a creative product, and the result of a creative process. The creative process of doctoral work has historically not been highlighted. The same is true for education as a whole. While there is an increasing call for greater creativity in education, they remain aspirational. In this article we describe the underlying premises and some of the practices of a doctoral degree that has been designed with the intention of foregrounding the creative process.

RESUMEN:
La psicología analítica es la obra de Carl Gustav Jung y sus seguidores. También conocida como psicología de los complejos, el término aparece oficialmente en 1913 para designar una ampliación del psicoanálisis, razón por la cual se la tiene tanto por una escuela de psicoanálisis como por una tendencia de la psicología profunda, según la expresión de Bleuler para caracterizar a toda psicología que parta de la hipótesis de la existencia de una psique inconsciente.
Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) era un joven psiquiatra ya reconocido por la profesión cuando asumió la defensa de la obra de Freud, tanto en los foros psiquiátricos como en su propia obra, iniciada en 1902. Su estrecha colaboración desde 1907 se rompería en 1913 a instancias de Freud, para quien los desarrollos Junguianos del psicoanálisis no resultaban acordes con su propia teoría. Atrás quedarán los años en los que Jung fue el presidente de la Asociación Psicoanalítica Internacional desde su fundación en 1910 hasta el inicio de la primera Guerra Mundial. Una época en la que se constituye y alcanza una dimensión internacional (Europa y Estados Unidos) el movimiento psicoanalítico nacido en Viena alrededor de Freud a partir de 1900.
Entre el inmenso legado de Carl Jung, aquel que ha pasado a la historia por sus teorías y métodos revolucionarios en el mundo de la psicología, hay un tema que sobresale y ha sido su herencia más duradera: La Teoría de los Arquetipos.
Jung busca e investiga a los arquetipos en las doctrinas de las tribus primitivas, en las doctrinas secretas esotéricas, en las religiones, en los mitos y leyendas, en los símbolos del Tarot, en las imágenes de la Alquimia y muy especialmente en los sueños, en los que se apoya para la psicoterapia.
Hay que empezar por decir que Jung pensaba que no venimos al mundo como una tabula rasa, no venimos ‘en blanco’ como planteaba Freud, el ser humano según Jung, ya nace con información y ciertas creencias: “no existe una sola idea o concepción esencial que no posea antecedentes históricos”. Estos antecedentes históricos llegan a nosotros inconscientemente, y otros los vamos aprendiendo por medio de mitos, leyendas y la experiencia.
Es fácil identificar diferentes tipos de patrones de conducta en los mitos y leyendas de las culturas antiguas, todas tienden a tener un mismo héroe y trama, tienden, básicamente, a repetirse. Esta continua repetición de historias con los mismos personajes y el mismo guión es lo que llamamos Arquetipos.
Dr. ADOLFO VÁSQUEZ ROCCA

Young children search for cues about gender-who should or should not do a particular activity, who can play with whom, and why girls and boys are different. From a vast array of gendered cues in their social worlds, children quickly form an impressive constellation of gender cognitions, including gender self-conceptions (gender identity) and gender stereotypes. Cognitive perspectives on gender development (i.e., cognitive developmental theory and gender-schema theory) assume that children actively search for ways to make sense of the social world that surrounds them. Gender identity develops as children realize that they belong to one gender group, and the consequences include increased motivation to be similar to other members of their group, preferences for members of their own group, selective attention to and memory for information relevant to their own sex, and increased interest in activities relevant to their own sex. Cognitive perspectives have been influential in increasing understanding of how children develop and apply gender stereotypes, and in their focus on children's active role in gender socialization.

Although a great paucity exists in scholarly studies on education in Somalia, the scarcity is more evident in the English studies area, particularly English as a Second Language (ESL) or English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (used interchangeably in this study), where almost none had existed until Mohamed Eno's MA TESOL Dissertation in 2005 and his recent article in the Journal of Somali Studies in 2017. Influenced by both the paucity and the latter study in 2017 1 , which recommended further examination of ESL/EFL area studies, this research investigates EFL students' perceptions of what they consider as more motivating or most motivating skill among the four second language acquisition (SLA) skills of reading, listening, speaking and writing. 2 Consequently, the results reveal that learners do not perceive more listening as a very motivating factor compared to more speaking, identified as the most motivating skill and ahead of more writing in the overall ratings. With very low results on the whole, more reading, on the other hand, is much below both speaking and writing in significance, though ahead of listening as a potential motivator. Interestingly, the findings also reveal persistent learner misunderstanding of the interlinkedness of the four skills, with a misperception that acquisition of one skill is independent of the others, as captured from an analysis of the vagaries in their responses.