Forensic Anthropology

"Determining the ancestry of unidentified human remains is a major task for bioarchaeologists and forensic anthropologists. Here, we report an assessment of the computer program that has become the main tool for accomplishing this task. Called FORDISC, the program determines ancestry through discriminant function analysis of cranial measurements. We evaluated the utility of FORDISC with 200 specimens of known ancestry. We ran the analyses with and without the test specimen’s source population included in the program’s reference sample, and with and without specifying the sex of the test specimen. We also controlled for the possibility that the number of variables employed affects the program’s ability to attribute ancestry. The results of the analyses suggest that FORDISC’s utility in research and medico-legal contexts is limited. FORDISC will only return a correct ancestry attribution when an unidentified specimen is more or less complete, and belongs to one of the populations represented in the program’s reference samples. Even then FORDISC can be expected to classify no more than 1 per cent of specimens
with confidence."

When submitting samples for analysis, maintaining sample integrity is essential. Appropriate packaging must be used to prevent damage, contamination or loss of sample. This is particularly important for stable isotope analysis by isotope ratio mass spectrometry as this technique is capable of detecting subtle differences in isotopic composition with great precision. In a novel study, scalp hair and fingernail samples were placed in five different types of packaging, routinely used in forensic laboratories and stored for 6 weeks and 6 months. Samples were subsequently cleaned and submitted for 13C⁄ 12C, 15N⁄ 14N, 2H⁄ 1H and 18O⁄ 16O analysis. Results from 13C analysis indicate that type of packaging can cause slight changes in 13C abundance over time. Differences were noted in the 15N isotope signatures of both hair and nail samples after 6-week storage, but not after 6 months. This apparent discrepancy could be a result of the packaging not being properly sealed in the 6 weeks study. Fewer differences were noted when analyzing samples for 2H and 18O abundance.

As part of a forensic study to determine the identification of the skull of W.A. MOZART, we noted a case of partial metopic closure in newborn skulls that may explain the orbital deformity, the feminine profile and alterations of the midface with maxillary growth disturbance associated with a dentofacial dysharmony.

Introduction: One of the most important data that can be obtained from bones is sex determination for
which the recommended method is taking metric measurements. Metric measurements can be
performed directly on dried bones obtained from the cadaver or indirectly from their radiographs.
Aim: We assessed the accuracy of sex determination and the applicability of previously defined rules
using the sternum and 4th rib measurement data from chest multislice computed tomography (MSCT)
imaging of 340 patients and developed a model/formula that would provide the best way to determine
sex.
Methods: We analyzed the chest MSCT of 340 patients (143 females, 197 males; mean age: 57.6  15.2
years) and created a coronal image parallel to the sternal long axis and a coronal image at the level of sternal
ending of the 4th rib. The 5 sternal measurements [length of the manubrium and sternal body, combined
length of the manubrium and sternal body (CL), manubrium width and corpus sterni width] and 4th rib width
(FRW) described in the literature were obtained. Sternal index (SI) and sternal area (SA) were calculated from
these measurements.
Results: The left FRW values were used for sex determination as the left FRW was found to be more
significant than the right FRW. An accuracy of over 80% was achieved for sex determination when the
‘‘142 rule’’ was used for CL only, a cut-off value of 5600 mm2 for SA only and a cut-off value of 16 mmfor
FRW only.We found that Hyrtl’s law and SI did not provide adequate accuracy for sex determination in
our patients. The model with the highest accuracy (88.2%) for sex determination used SA and FRW
together. Wealso believe that the best predictors for sex determination using the sternumand 4th rib are
SA and FRW, similar to the Torwalt and Hoppa report.
Conclusion: Radiological methods such as MSCT are useful in making reliable measurements to be used
in various anthropological and forensic investigations and determining their accuracy.

Death and the bodies of the dead are managed and handled in contemporary Western society by various professions that include archaeology. The bodies of the dead exist in a variety of material forms, and generate conflicting responses from the archaeologists who work with them. Positioning archaeologists as professionals within a wider society, this article explores the relationship between the physicality of the body, the (de)construction of personhood and the problem of mortality in contemporary
Western (British) society.

"This article describes the potential interest in forensic anthropology of the microscopic analysis of dental calculus deposits (DCD), a calcified residue frequently found on the surface of teeth. Its sampling and analysis seem straightforward and relatively reproducible. Samples came from archaeological material (KHB-1 Ra’s al-Khabbah and RH-5 Ra′s al-Hamra, two Prehistoric graveyards located in the Sultanate of Oman, dated between the 5th and 4th millennium B.C.; Montenzio Vecchia, an Etruscan-Celtic necropolis from the north of Italy, dated between the 5th and 3rd century B.C.; body rests of Agnès Sorel, French royal mistress died in 1450 A.D.; skeleton of Pierre Hazard, French royal notary from the 15th century A.D.). Samples were studies by direct optical microscope (OM) or scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Many cytological, histological and elemental analyses were possible, producing precious data for the identification of these remains, the reconstitution of their alimentation and occupational habits, and propositions for manner of death.

Keywords: Dental calculus; Forensic anthropology; Identification; Circumstances of death; Pathological status; Optical microscopy; SEM; Bio-archaeology."

Methods for estimating body mass from the human skeleton are often required for research in biological or forensic anthropology. There are currently only two methods for estimating body mass in subadults: the width of the distal femur metaphysis is useful for individuals 1-12 years of age and the femoral head is useful for older subadults. This article provides age-structured formulas for estimating subadult body mass using midshaft femur cross-sectional geometry (polar second moments of area). The formulas were developed using data from the Denver Growth Study and their accuracy was examined using an independent sample from Franklin County, Ohio. Body mass estimates from the midshaft were compared with estimates from the width of the distal metaphysis of the femur. Results indicate that accuracy and bias of estimates from the midshaft and the distal end of the femur are similar for this contemporary cadaver sample. While clinical research has demonstrated that body mass is one principle factor shaping cross-sectional geometry of the subadult midshaft femur, clearly other biomechanical forces, such as activity level, also play a role. Thus formulas for estimating body mass from femoral measurements should be tested on subadult populations from diverse ecological and cultural circumstances to better understand the relationship between body mass, activity, diet, and morphology during ontogeny.

'Disappearances' and political killings are often committed in states where government forces are fighting an armed opposition movement, or where an armed conflict has broken out. The victims may include captured guerrillas and soldiers, civilians thought to support them, members of dissident groups and many others who are killed on the mere pretext of having a role in the conflict. The use of -disappearances- and extra-judicial executions, rather than outright official execution, serves several internal purposes for repressive regimes. It allows them to get rid of actual, potential, and perceived opponents without the publicity of a public trial or the risk of creating martyrs through the imposition of death sentences. It also terrorises broad sections of the population, by creating a chilling effect on political activity in general. Most significantly, the use of the mechanisms of disappearance and extra-judicial killings allows the government to avoid accountability for its actions.

For the past five decades, countless individuals worldwide have lost their lives as a result of forced -disappearances- and extra-judicial executions usually through covert or overt governmental programs. Overtly, various government forces have performed systematic and deliberate killings and the practice has been institutionalised as a means of eliminating opponents and potential opponents. The impunity with which the security forces are allowed to kill political opponents and criminal suspects creates the conditions in which many other people are killed by members of the security forces for criminal motives or simply at will. Although this may be premised on a policy of increased security by granting greater powers to armed forces, occasionally it has taken the form of legislation that in reality has created an opportunity for forced -disappearances- and extra-judicial executions.

Objectives: To test the hypothesis that weapon-related violence (excluding firearms) results in more severe injury relative to the use of body parts (fists, feet and other body parts), and to rank order of injury severity by assault mechanism.

Design: Retrospective cohort study.

Participants: 24 660 patients who were treated in a UK emergency department for violence-related injury.

Main outcome measure: Score on the Manchester Triage Scale.

Results: The use of a weapon resulted in significantly more serious injury (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.13, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00 to 1.28). However, of all mechanisms of violent injury, the use of feet resulted in most severe injury (AOR 1.41, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.70), followed by blunt objects (AOR 1.35, 95% CI 1.14 to 1.58), other body parts (AOR 1.22, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.40) and sharp objects (AOR 1.09, 95% CI 0.91 to 1.5), compared with use of fists.

Conclusions: Use of weapons resulted in more severe injury than use only of body parts. The use of feet caused the most serious injuries, whereas the use of fists caused the least severe injuries. Injury severity varied by number of assailants and age of the patient—peaking at 47 years—but not by number of injuries. Preventing the use of feet in violence, and preventing group violence should be major priorities.

Mozart  Applied Anthropology Inquest  by Pierre-François Puech  2019  148 pages  17 illustrations, 15x21 cm.  ISBN 978-88-3384-049-9  €18.00 http://www.pontecorboli.com/scheda.php?codice=puech 
The short life of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791), prolific and influential, ended in brutal circumstances.  That is why methods of anthropology in the forensic sciences were so important after the skull was exhumed in 1801 and examined in 1986-1991 for identification by several scientists. The enquiry verified existing knowledge and made sense of newly discovered facts...A forensic cold case: chapter of a book concerning the last days of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

El trabajo de Veena Das cubre una vasta y compleja trayectoria, atravesada por una preocupación constante por la dignidad humana, aun en los contextos más adversos, violentos y degradados… su obra trasciende la escena local de la India y se propone como una reflexión fundamental sobre los efectos corrosivos de la violencia y la necesidad de adelantar y permitir la reparación para restablecer espacios de coexistencia social. En el primer caso, Das explora los límites de la solidaridad y el lazo social, el papel de la feminidad y la masculinidad en la generación de mitos y arquetipos sociales que autorizan la violencia colectiva, la centralidad de los imaginarios colectivos en la generación de violencias contra grupos minoritarios y el papel del Estado como un actor más, con frecuencia cómplice de aquellos agresores locales y trasnacionales y a la vez ansioso por aparecer neutro y justo; en el segundo, insiste en la no-pasividad de la víctima, en el valor de la resistencia –entendida esta no siempre como un acto deliberado de oposición a las grandes lógicas opresivas, sino como la dignidad de señalar la pérdida y el coraje de reclamar el lugar de devastación–, el poder de la voz y el testimonio, el papel histórico de las mujeres –poco reconocido– al liderar muchos procesos de duelo a través de la re-construcción de sus propios hogares, y el día a día como el “sitio” donde se repara el lazo social.
Ver: http://books.google.com.co/books?id=lCeqW8L1TJUC&dq=Veena+Das:+Sujetos+del+dolor,+agentes+de+dignidad&printsec=frontcover&source=bl&ots=jHQxr2zMKs&sig=rDMr-d3y_RngrCVilbGOeAwsZFI&hl=es&ei=o4tGS-7lJInGlAfu6JUI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=&f=false

The second cervical vertebra can be used to estimate sex with 83% accuracy in unidentified human skeletal remains. Reported here are the necessary statistics, based on 8 dimensions taken on 400 second cervical vertebrae, for the computation of customized discriminant functions. Discriminant function equations developed using variable selected in a stepwise procedure are also presented here as an example of the usefullness of this bone in estimating sex.

Sex and race variation of the occipital bone has been previously investigated, but particular examination of the effect of age and ancestry on sexual dimorphism has not been addressed.  This paper examines morphological variation associated with sex and ancestry in the condylar region of the occipital bone, and the effect of age and ancestry on the estimation of sex.  Models previously published by Holland (1, 2) are also tested, and methodological problems are addressed.  The results indicate that age does not have an effect on sexual dimorphism, but that whites exhibit greater, although not significantly, more sexual dimorphism than blacks. Significant sex and ancestry variation is present in the condylar region of the occipital bone, but neither sex nor ancestry could be estimated accurately using measurements of this anatomical region defined by Holland (1,2).

Use of proximal femur shape to determine ancestry has appeal, but its validity is problematic because of unaddressed issues associated with skeletal plasticity, within- and between-population variation, sample selection, and interobserver error.  In this paper, I inspect within- and between-group variation in proximal femur shape using five groups (American Blacks, American Whites, Hispanics, Native Americans, and Polynesians), and examine the affect of three environmental variables (subsistence strategy, physical terrain, and geographical region). Finally, I consider the validity of using the proximal femur to assess ancestry.  The results show that there is significant within-group variation in proximal femur shape. Among Native Americans, both geographical location and subsistence strategy have a significant affect on proximal femur shape.  Nevertheless, this study generally verifies the assertion that the proximal femur can be used reliably to distinguish Native Americans from American Blacks and Whites, but its precision may be reduced in some geographical regions.

The study investigates differences in femur midshaft shape, robusticity, and sexual dimorphism derived from external measurements between a broad range of prehistoric and historic North American populations with different subsistence strategies and inferred levels of mobility. The sample was divided into six groups to test whether observed femur midshaft variables follow the patterns predicted based on archaeologically and historically determined subsistence and mobility data. The results suggest that there is significant variation in femur midshaft shape and robusticity in all populations and that inferred mobility levels do not correspond consistently with femur midshaft structure in either males or females. Results do, however, support the prediction that sexual dimorphism is generally greater in more mobile populations.

Femur subtrochanteric size and shape can be used to differentiate between adult Native Americans and American Blacks and Whites, but little is known about when shape differences are established during growth and development. Ontological changes in subtrochanteric shape were examined using 74 Native American and 61 American Black/White subadult femora. At birth the proximal femur diaphysis is relatively circular in both groups. Between birth and five years, the diaphysis becomes more mediolaterally broad, especially in Native Americans, due to differential growth between the mediolateral and anteroposterior planes. This change may be due to biomechanical stresses associated with developing a mature gait pattern. After the age of five, growth occurs more equally in the two planes and shape does not change significantly. Adult shape of the proximal femur is established by approximately five years of age and can be used to discriminate between Native American and American Black/White femora in older subadults.

Pelin et al. recently showed that sacral height measured on lateral magnetic resonance images can be used with moderate accuracy to reconstruct stature in males. In most forensic anthropological cases, however, sacral dimensions must be obtained from dry bones. In this study, the relationship between stature and sacral height, hip height, and femur head diameter measured on dry bone was evaluated for American Blacks and Whites of both sexes (N = 247). There are significant correlation between stature and these three dimensions, but the results suggest that none of the dimensions predict stature with the accuracy needed to be useful in forensic anthropological investigations.

A great deal has previously been written about the use of skeletal morphological changes in estimating ages-at-death. This article looks in particular at the pubic symphysis, as it was historically one of the first regions to be described in the literature on age estimation. Despite the lengthy history, the value of the pubic symphysis in estimating ages and in providing evidence for putative identifications remains unclear. This lack of clarity primarily stems from the fact that rather ad hoc statistical methods have been applied in previous studies. This article presents a statistical analysis of a large data set (n = 1766) of pubic symphyseal scores from multiple contexts, including anatomical collections, war dead, and victims of genocide. The emphasis is in finding statistical methods that will have the correct ‘‘coverage.’’ ‘‘Coverage’’ means that if a method has a stated coverage of 50%, then approximately 50% of the individuals in a particular pubic symphyseal stage should have ages that are between the stated age limits, and that approximately 25% should be below the bottom age limit and 25% above the top age limit. In a number of applications it is shown that if an appropriate prior age-at-death distribution is used, then ‘‘transition analysis’’ will provide accurate ‘‘coverages,’’ while percentile methods, range methods, and means (€standard deviations) will not. Even in cases where there are significant differences in the mean ages-to-transition between populations, the effects on the stated age limits for particular ‘‘coverages’’ are minimal. As a consequence, more emphasis needs to be placed on collecting data on age changes in large samples, rather than focusing on the possibility of inter-population variation in rates of aging.

Variation in humeral and femoral structural morphology of Great Plains populations was examined for differences due to subsistence practice and geographical location. The sample consisted of Archaic hunter-gatherers, early and middle Woodland hunter-gatherers, late Woodland incipient horticulturalists, Plains village horticulturalists, and equestrian nomads from the northern, central, and southern Plains. In general, skeletal morphology on the Plains was relatively homogeneous throughout time and space. There are few significant univariate differences in same sex comparisons or in sexual dimorphism due to either subsistence practice or geographical region. However, males tend to cluster partially by subsistence practice, while females cluster by geographical region. Subsistence differences are generally associated with long bone size and activity related robusticity. Geographical variation between groups is most likely associated with climatically-induced differences in body build and not terrain relief.

Differentiating between perimortem and postmortem skeletal injuries is a critical, but often extremely difficult, task for forensic anthropologists. Sixty porcine long bones were exposed to natural taphonomic conditions and fractured every 28 days throughout a 141 day period. Differences between macroscopic blunt force trauma fracture characteristics were documented and examined to determine if they varied over time.  Changes in fracture characteristics were also examined in relationship to bone moisture content – measured by percent ash weight. There is a significant relationship between 1) postmortem interval and percent ash weight, fracture surface, and fracture angle and 2) the percent ash weight and fracture surface and fracture angle. Bone moisture content correlates significantly with fracture morphology and other characteristics commonly used by forensic anthropologists to determine the timing of traumatic injuries. However, fracture characteristics normally associated with perimortem trauma can persist long into the postmortem interval.

Conventionally, forensic anthropology is defined as the application of physical anthropology to the legal process. As experts in osteology, skeletal biology and archeology, forensic anthropologists assist in the recovery and analyses of human remains, especially when they are skeletonized, burned, mutilated, or otherwise unrecognizable. Forensic anthropologists use knowledge of skeletal biology to develop a biological profile, aid in identification, reconstruct trauma, and estimate the postmortem interval. In the past three decades forensic anthropology has been growing rapidly and developing as both a forensic science and as an area of research in physical anthropology, with the number of both academic and non-academic positions in forensic anthropology increasing in the United States in the past several decades. Forensic anthropologists are increasingly involved in numerous aspects of crime scene, mass disaster, and human rights investigations, including search and recover, analysis of remains, and expert testimony. Simultaneously, forensic anthropology has also matured into a dynamic field of research that is generating new research questions and new methods for reexamining older anthropological and forensic hypotheses. This overview discusses the role of forensic anthropology as an applied forensic science and as an academic research area within physical anthropology.

In 1990, Gilbert and Gill proposed a simple metric technique using femur subtrochanteric anteroposterior and mediolateral diaphyseal diameters for discriminating between Native American and American Black and White femora in medicolegal and bioarchaeological context. However, there are several inherent assumptions in the method that may affect its validity. The assumptions include minimal sexual dimorphism, temporal and geographical homogeneity within populations, and that differences between populations in femur subtrochanteric size and shape are primarily due to genetic variation. In this study, these assumptions are tested using femora from seven populations (African, American Black, American White, Australian, Native American, Hispanic, and Polynesian). The results indicate that sexual dimorphism and geographical and temporal heterogeneity in proximal femur diaphyseal shape within Native Americans is not great enough to significantly affect the validity of the of the Gilbert and Gill method (GGM).  Variation between populations is most likely due to combined genetic and environmental factors, but differences in proximal femur shape between Native Americans and American Blacks/Whites are sufficient to allow accurate discrimination between these groups.  Caution, however, must be taken during investigations where populations other than Native Americans or American Blacks/Whites are present, and therefore, the GGM may have limited forensic anthropological application in many parts of the world.

Age-at-death estimation of an individual skeleton is important  to forensic and biological anthropologists for identification and demographic analysis, but it has been shown that the current aging methods are often unreliable because of skeletal variation and taphonomic factors. Multifactorial methods have been shown to produce better results when determining age-at-death than single indicator methods. However, ultifactorial methods are difficult to apply to single or poorly preserved skeletons, and they rarely provide the investigator with information about the reliability of the estimate. The goal of this research is to examine the validity of the Sugeno fuzzy integral as a multifactorial method for modeling age-at-death of an individual skeleton. This approach is novel because it produces an informed decision of age-at-death utilizing multiple age indicators while also taking into consideration the accuracies of the methods and the condition of the bone being examined. Additionally, the Sugeno fuzzy integral does not require the use of a population and it qualitatively produces easily interpreted graphical results. Examples are presented applying three commonly used aging methods on a known-age skeletal sample from the Terry Anatomical Collection. This method produces results that are more accurate and with smaller intervals than single indicator methods.

Forensic archaeology has been extensively defined and  considered as a specific emerging discipline (e.g., Connor & Scott, 2001; Hunter & Cox, 2005; Hunter, Roberts, & Martin, 1996). Some of its applications internationally have been specifically described, namely the excavation of mass graves (Hanson, 2004; Haglund & Sorg, 2002; Haglund, Connor, & Scott, 2001; Wright, Hanson, & Sterenberg, 2005), alongside a wider nonspecific literature describing human rights investigations (e.g., Akhavan, 1996; Freund, 1979; Stover, 1995; Stover & Peress, 1998). International investigations include genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity,
mass disaster victim recovery, and repatriation of war dead. This chapter seeks to set the current and future potential for forensic archaeology in the context of international investigations.

This chapter is about the archaeology of mass graves. There are various types of mass grave (for example, plague pits and battlefield burials) but this chapter deals with mass graves that are excavated for forensic and evidential reasons or to identify victims and not just to satisfy a desire for knowledge about the past (for a definition of mass graves see Skinner 1987). These mass graves are likely to be of recent age due to the nature of the legal process and statutes of limitation, and their recency generates problems that are more challenging than those offered by historical mass graves. Among these enhanced problems is the unpleasantness of excavating putrefying soft tissue, coping with grieving relatives, and securing the excavation team from attack by perpetrators or supporters of the killings.

The laws of stratigraphy, developed in geology, have long been adopted for archaeological use. Archaeological excavation in the UK relies on the application of these principles to define, interpret and understand site history. The adaptation of archaeological methods to forensic settings has recently resulted in successful analysis of stratigraphy-defining complex series of events on murder burial scenes. The breadth of physical evidence that can be recovered through stratigraphic excavation is great, and that which can be lost without due attention to the buried surfaces forming an intrinsic part of the stratified deposits of a site is significant. Recent case examples demonstrate the importance of employing stratigraphical principles in the excavation and interpretation of buried cultural and natural deposits as part of multidisciplinary forensic investigation.

Observations made during the 13C isotope analysis of gaseous CO2 in the simultaneous presence of argon in the ion source of the isotope ratio mass spectrometer prompted us to investigate what influence the simultaneous presence of nitrogen would have on both accuracy and precision of bulk 2H isotope analysis of nitrogen-rich organic compounds.  Initially an international reference material, IAEA-CH7, was mixed with silver nitrate in various ratios to assess the impact that N2 evolved from the pyrolysis of nitrogen-rich organic compounds would have on measured d2H-values of IAEA-CH7.  In a subsequent experiment, benzoic acid was mixed with silver nitrate to mimic the N:H ratio of organic-rich nitrogen compounds such as cellulose nitrate and RDX.  The results of both experiments showed a significant deterioration of both accuracy and precision for the expected d2H values for IAEA-CH7 and benzoic acid when model mixtures were converted into hydrogen and nitrogen, and subsequently separated by gas chromatography using standard experimental conditions, namely a 60cm packed column with molecular sieve 5A as stationary phase held at a temperature of 85-C.  It was found that bulk 2H stable isotope analysis of nitrogen-rich organic compounds employing published standard conditions can result in a loss of accuracy and precision yielding d2H values that are 5 to 25‰ too negative, thus suggesting, for example, that tree-ring 2H isotope data based on cellulose nitrate may have to be revised.

Drug profiling, or the ability to link batches of illicit drugs to a common source or synthetic route, has long been a goal of law enforcement agencies.  Research in the past decade has explored drug profiling with isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS).  This type of research can be limited by the use of substances seized by police, of which the provenance is unknown.  Fortunately, however, some studies in recent years have been carried out on drugs synthesized in-house and therefore of known history.  In this study, 18 MDMA samples were synthesized in-house from aliquots of the same precursor by three common reductive amination routes and analyzed for 13C, 15N, and 2H isotope abundance using IRMS.  For these three preparative methods, results indicate that 2H isotope abundance data is necessary for discrimination by synthetic route.  Furthermore, hierarchical cluster analysis using 2H data on its own or combined with 13C and/or 15N provides a statistical means for accurate discrimination by synthetic route.

The relationship between diet, geographic location and isotopic composition of human tissue has been successfully exploited in archaeological and palaeodietary studies, i.e. on ancient man, but cases in which this approach has been applied to present-day people e.g. to aid identification of mutilated or deteriorated bodies are far and few between. Stable isotope data are presented here from a case where for the first time stable isotope based intelligence aided victim identification by DNA analysis and subsequent apprehension of the perpetrators thus demonstrating that it is possible in principal for stable isotope data of present-day people to be useful for human provenancing, i.e. to yield valuable information about a person's life history and geographic origin.

The growth of four variables of the ischium was analysed by polynomial regression in order to evaluate its significance and its capacity for age and sex determination during and after growth. The material used was 327 specimens ranging from birth to 97 years of age from four documented west European collections. The growth curves were calculated for ischium length and three new variables of the acetabular surface (horizontal diameter of ischium acetabular surface, vertical diameter of ischium acetabular surface and ischium acetabular index).