Excavation of Pit-Agriculture Landscape on Majuro Atoll, Marshall Islands, and Its Implications

Anthropocene, 2014

Island ecosystems and peoples face uncertain futures in the wake of predicted climate change, sea level rise, and habitat alteration in the decades and centuries to come. Archeological and paleoecological records provide important context for understanding modern environmental and sociopolitical developments on islands. We review and analyze human interactions with island ecosystems in Polynesia, the Caribbean, and California during the last several millennia. Our analysis demonstrates that human impacts on island ecosystems and cases of highly managed anthropogenic landscapes extend deep in the past, often beginning at initial settlement. There are important issues of scale and island physical characteristics, however, that make human ecodynamics on islands variable through space and time. These data demonstrate that current environmental problems have their roots in deeper time and suggest that the Anthropocene likely began by the onset of the Holocene, if not earlier.

Atoll Research Bulletin

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Atoll research bulletin, 1999

history of the Marshall Islands was initiated. Located about 4,000 km southwest of Hawaii, the Marshalls are situated mostly between 4°-12° north latitude and consist of 29 low coral atolls and five small islands oriented in two roughly parallel lines trending southeast-northwest for about 1,100 km. Selection of four atolls for intensive archaeological survey and excavations was based on the marked rainfall gradient beginning in the wet south, with about 3,500 mm of annual precipitation, to 1,500 mm in the dry north (Fig. 1). On Pacific atolls, rainfall is the most significant determinant of species diversity (Fosberg 1984; Stoddart 1992) and is mirrored in the prehistoric settlement patterns by varying densities of surface artifacts, area of prehistoric habitations, and size of agricultural systems. Williams and Sabath (1 982), in their modern population studies, have demonstrated the close correspondence between human carrying capacity, island size, and climate. Consequently, Marshall Islands atolls were selected for study at opposite ends of the rainfall gradient beginning with the most southern one of Ebon (4° N latitude), Maloelap (8° 50') and Ujae (9°) near the center of the archipelago, and Utrok (11 ° 1 5'), one of the farthest north, permanently inhabited atolls. Beginning about 2000 BP, human colonists of the Marshalls targeted the pristine stocks of fish, sea birds, turtles, and coconut crabs (Birgus latro), yet permanent settlers would ultimately depend on terrestrial production for the bulk of their subsistence. Aroid pit cultivation for Giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis)-uniquely adapted to the harsh conditions of atolls (Thompson 1982; Weisler in press)-is the foundation of Marshall Islands culture. Pandanus, with numerous varieties cultivated throughout the Marshalls (Stone 1960), was the fundamental tree crop for the dry northern atolls, while breadfruit increased in importance towards the south. Arrowroot (Tacca leontopetaloid.es) was grown on all the atolls and supplemented the carbohydrate intake. After a brief review of previous archaeological research in the Marshalls, results from the first archaeological survey and excavations from this long-term project are reported. PREVIOUS ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES Archaeological research in the Marshall Islands began with the Kelton-Bishop Museum Expedition in 1977, and continued with phases in 1979 and 1980. The first effort was a brief reconnaissance-level survey of 12 atolls and recording of 42 sites with the goal of determining if these atolls had sufficient, intact prehistoric cultural deposits warranting detailed study (Rosendahl 1987). More than 4,000 portable artifacts were collected and included shell adzes, fishing gear, scrapers, ornaments, and manufacturing tools such as shell hammerstones and pumice and coral abraders. Although not from dated contexts, this is an important archaeological collection of Marshall Islands artifacts. Eight habitation sites on four atolls were test excavated and one radiocarbon age determination established occupation by 1260 ± 80 BP (Rosendahl 1987:161). While Rosendahl's survey was extensive, Riley, in 1979, focussed on a single atoll, completing an intensive survey and transect excavations of a major prehistoric village site. He recorded 122 sites on Majuro Atoll which he classified into midden areas (sites with surface food remains), house platforms, coral-faced structures (some of which were historic burials, e.g., Riley [1987:fig. 2.4]), fishtraps, wells, and a Cyrtosperma pit zone. Following the observations made by the botanist Hatheway (1953), Riley suggested that the oldest portions of habitation sites should be in the middle of the islet. The greatest density of recorded sites was at Laura village, on the largest islet, and excavation conducted there produced a radiocarbon age determination of 1970 ±110 BP-one of the oldest habitation dates for the Marshalls. The last phase of the Kelton-Bishop Expedition was a detailed survey of Arno Atoll with systematic transect excavations undertaken to locate buried prehistoric sites that may not have surface indications (Dye 1987). Some 133 islets were surveyed and 164 sites recorded, mostly habitations. The earliest human occupation was dated to about 1000 BP, while dates for the reef platform were 2,500-3,000 years old. In the northern Marshalls, Streck surveyed and conducted test excavations on five atolls (1990). Brief excavations on Bikini Atoll yielded 35 radiocarbon age determinations, 15 percent of which were older than 2000 BP. Most were "grab" samples from eroded exposures of cultural layers and the stratigraphic details have not been published. Few archaeologists accept the oldest dates because old drift logs may have been used for fuel (Kirch and Weisler 1994:292). That is, dating drift wood from trees with a long life span can add hundreds of years to radiocarbon age determinations. Consequently, the date when the log was used for fuel is increased by the age of the tree. In conjunction with expansion of the airport on Kwajalein Atoll, Shun and Athens (1990; see also Beardsley 1994) reported a buried gray layer on Kwajalein islet dated to about 2000 BP. Located near the center of the islet, the layer may represent a natural swamp or constructed aroid pit. Also on Kwajalein, Weisler et al. (in press) recovered a single human burial during construction of utility lines. Found with 151 grave goods, the bones probably are those of an individual of relatively high status who may have shared communication or trade links with groups on nearby Polynesian islands. Ancestral ties with the Marianas are suggested by a comparison of ancient mtDNA. Widdicombe recently completed a technological study of Marshallese shell adzes from Ebon, Maloelap, and Ujae atolls (1997). Adzes were manufactured from large and small taxa of Tridacna, helmet shells (Cassidae), conches (Lamhis sp.), and less frequently from cones (Conidae) and augers (Terebra sp.). No significant differences were noted in terms of assemblage composition between Maloelap and Ebon yet, today, residents of the largest islet of Kaven, Maloelap Atoll, say that T. gigas does not grow there-perhaps because of the deep offshore lagoon waters. Consequently, T. gigas adzes may have been imported. Somerville-Ryan (1998) has reported on a taphonomic investigation of archaeological shellfish assemblages from Ebon Atoll. During prehistory, shellfish were brought to sites as food, as raw material for tool and ornament manufacture, and in water-rolled coral gravel used for pavement. His study suggests that only a few taxa reliably reflect food use, and archaeologists should be aware of this when selecting specimens for radiocarbon dating. The past two decades produced at least brief archaeological surveys on nearly half of the Marshall Islands, and a range of prehistoric artifacts and habitation sites have been documented. Detailed excavations are, as yet, rare, but widely accepted radiocarbon dates establish human occupation by about 2000 BP.

Geology

The geological stability and existence of low-lying atoll nations is threatened by sea-level rise and climate change. Funafuti Atoll, in the tropical Pacific Ocean, has experienced some of the highest rates of sea-level rise (~5.1 ± 0.7 mm/yr), totaling ~0.30 ± 0.04 m over the past 60 yr. We analyzed six time slices of shoreline position over the past 118 yr at 29 islands of Funafuti Atoll to determine their physical response to recent sea-level rise. Despite the magnitude of this rise, no islands have been lost, the majority have enlarged, and there has been a 7.3% increase in net island area over the past century (A.D. 1897-2013). There is no evidence of heightened erosion over the past half-century as sea-level rise accelerated. Reef islands in Funafuti continually adjust their size, shape, and position in response to variations in boundary conditions, including storms, sediment supply, as well as sea level. Results suggest a more optimistic prognosis for the habitability of atoll nations and demonstrate the importance of resolving recent rates and styles of island change to inform adaptation strategies.

International Review of Environmental History, 2023

This article scrutinises environmental engineering activities in the Maldive Islands over the past four centuries, with a focus on the last six decades. It explores the historic trajectories of environmental transformations in the archipelago to demonstrate how various kinds of human modifications of marine and terrestrial landscapes reflect shifting priorities and preoccupations of the island society at given times. The analytical focus is on construction activities that involve coral and sand mining, dredging of harbours and shipping lanes, land reclamation and beach nourishment, as well as the creation of artificial islands and coral reefs. This paper proposes the notion of 'atoll engineering' to capture these various human-environment entanglements in a comprehensive analytical framework and to account for the particularities of inhabiting a coral island ecosystem. By mapping out historic continuities and discontinuities, this paper argues that scrutiny of atoll engineering displays alterations in islanders' understandings of and relationships with their thalassic environment and enables understanding of the influences of colonialism, modernisation and climate change on Maldivian society and culture.

Quaternary Science Reviews, 2019

Highlights-Initiation of low-lying islets from Takapoto Atoll (French Polynesia) started not prior 2,300 yr BP from isolated depocentres.-Development of atoll islets occurred mainly throughout a sea-level fall between 2,600 yr BP and the last 500 years.-Over the last 2,000 years, in northwest Tuamotu islands, cyclone activity was probably more intense from the 11th to 19th century.

In the face of environmental uncertainty due to anthropogenic climate change, islands are at the front lines of global change, threatened by sea level rise, habitat alteration, extinctions and declining biodiversity. Islands also stand at the forefront of scientific study for understanding the deep history of human ecodynamics and to build sustainable future systems. We summarize the long history of human interactions with Polynesian, Mediterranean, Californian and Caribbean island ecosystems, documenting the effects of various waves of human settlement and socioeconomic systems, from hunter–gatherer–fishers, to agriculturalists, to globalized colonial interests. We identify degradation of island environments resulting from human activities, as well as cases of human management of resources to enhance productivity and create more sustainable systems. These case studies suggest that within a general global pattern of progressive island degradation, there was no single trajectory of human impact, but rather complex effects based on variable island physiographies, human subsistence strategies, population densities , technologies, sociopolitical organization and decision-making.

2002

Radiocarbon, 2019

Pingelap Atoll, 1.8 km 2 in area and nearly 70 km from the nearest island, presents a clear example of anthropogenic niche-building in physically isolated circumstances with limited resources. This paper presents the first radiocarbon (14 C) dates (n=8) from an archaeological project examining settlement and subsistence practices on the atoll, specifically how Pingelapese people have constructed the environment to meet their needs over centuries of occupation. These dates confirm that human occupation of Pingelap occurred by 1700-1550 cal BP (2σ) at the latest, only a few centuries after the earliest securely-dated settlement of high islands in the region (Kosrae and Pohnpei), and with strikingly similar timing to another atoll in the region, Mwoakilloa. Evidence of early settlement includes shell tools, ornaments, extensive marine faunal remains, and charred botanical domesticates. These preliminary data build a framework for the settlement history and environment building of Pingelap.

Antipode, 2022

Sinking atolls are an enduring symbol of the power of climate change to destroy inhabited places. Climate impact science and the media share a panoptic gaze on atoll islands seeing them as being small, inert and passive in the face of rising seas. The focus in these accounts is on the power of water as the agent of destruction, while the agency of the assemblage of human and non-human actors that is the (is)land itself is ignored. Thus, atolls are said to be vulnerable, and the prevailing ideas of adaptation are either international relocation to avoid the sea or seawalls to contain it. Based on qualitative field research in Pacific atolls, this paper examines the connections between island peoples and their terrestrial environments, and the work that they are doing in response to the impacts of climate change. It shows how land is conceived symbolically, socio-culturally and legally, and considers its role in sustaining livelihoods and anchoring identities through a changing climate.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences, 1973

The earliest sediments identified of late Pleistocene age are quiet-water calcarenites, containing abundant molluscs but few corals. As waters shallowed these were replaced by emergent intertidal sediments, probably colonized by mangroves. Further emersion into subaerial conditions resulted in cementation and solution of the limestones to form a dissected karst topography. Perhaps concurrent with this, phosphates, probably originally derived from sea birds, were deposited in open cavities. Further marine withdrawal caused the erosion and re-deposition of these phosphatic sediments at a lower level. A succeeding event was the formation of a sand cay at the western end of the atoll. Its emergent surface was colonized by tortoises, birds, crocodiles and snails, and the youngest deposits indicate the presence of at least seasonal bodies of standing fresh water. This terrestrial interlude was followed by inundation by a sea, perhaps 2-3 m higher than the present level, in which was depos...

This study looks deeply at the atoll, beginning with its young geology, its specific biogeography, its early archaeology, and its ecology. From these different sciences assumptions can be made about its land snail fauna. Natural colonizers had to be highly salt-resistent and able to arrive quickly, but most would be introduced by gardening activities. By careful sampling from the surface of the village islet, from the outer islets, and from column samples throughout its stratigraphy one can distinguish which species are natural, which inhabit the gardens in the poor soil, and which inhabit the gardens in the good soil. One can use these inferences to make statements about the environment of the past. And, in small ways, one can see how the land transformed from a low marginal island into a vital oasis full of splendid people.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2021

Islands are useful model systems for examining human-environmental interactions. While many anthropo-genic effects visible in the archaeological and paleoecological records are terrestrial in nature (e.g., clearance of tropical forests for agriculture and settlement; introduction of nonnative flora and fauna), native peoples also relied heavily on marine environments for their subsistence and livelihood. Here we use two island case studies-Palau (Micronesia) and the Lesser Antilles (Caribbean)-and approach their long-term settlement history through a "ridge-to-reef" perspective to assess the role that human activity played in land-and seascape change over deep time. In particular, we examine the entanglement of terrestrial and marine ecosystems resulting from anthropogenic effects and cultural responses to socio-environmental feedback. We suggest that on the humanized tropical islands of the Anthropocene, mangroves, near shore and littoral areas, and coral reefs were major sites of terrestrial-marine interface chronicling and modulating anthropogenic effects.

Ocean Solutions, Earth Solutions, 2016

This text is taken from 'Touring Pacific Cultures,' a book edited by Kalissa Alexeye and John Taylor, published 2016 by ANU Press, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.