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Eric Fleming-Construction Technology - An Illustrated Introduction [buildings, architecture-Wiley-Blackwell (2005)

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This book serves as an introductory guide to construction technology, tailored for students aspiring to enter fields such as building, quantity surveying, and building surveying. It aims to bridge the gap for early learners without prior experience in the industry, offering practical insights into domestic construction techniques, terminology, and relevant regulations, while emphasizing the importance of understanding construction processes for accurate cost assessment.

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Why should we be starting a book on building construction with a discussion of bricks and blocks? Quite simply because bricks are one of the major construction materials instantly as- sociated with construction in the mind of the novice or lay person, but more importantly because the sizes chosen for the manufacture of bricks and blocks affect practically every- thing in a building except the thickness of the coats of paint or the coats of plaster. This will be discussed in more detail as we proceed. Masonry Construction in Bricks and Blocks
Why should we be starting a book on building construction with a discussion of bricks and blocks? Quite simply because bricks are one of the major construction materials instantly as- sociated with construction in the mind of the novice or lay person, but more importantly because the sizes chosen for the manufacture of bricks and blocks affect practically every- thing in a building except the thickness of the coats of paint or the coats of plaster. This will be discussed in more detail as we proceed. Masonry Construction in Bricks and Blocks
Fig. 1.1(a) Solid and perforated bricks.
Fig. 1.1(a) Solid and perforated bricks.
Fig. 1.1(b) Single shallow frogged bricks.
Fig. 1.1(b) Single shallow frogged bricks.
Fig. 1.2 Coordinating and working dimensions of the standard metric brick.
Fig. 1.2 Coordinating and working dimensions of the standard metric brick.
Fig. 1.4 Types of brick by shape. Bricks can be manufactured to fulfil differ- ent functions, i.e. strength, resistance to water
Fig. 1.4 Types of brick by shape. Bricks can be manufactured to fulfil differ- ent functions, i.e. strength, resistance to water
Fig. 1.3 A lintel over a window opening in a brick wall.
Fig. 1.3 A lintel over a window opening in a brick wall.
Table 1.1 Brick types by end use —- compressive strength and water absorption.
Table 1.1 Brick types by end use —- compressive strength and water absorption.
The walls are built in stretcher or common bond, i.e. all the main bricks show a stretcher face and overlap by half a brick length
The walls are built in stretcher or common bond, i.e. all the main bricks show a stretcher face and overlap by half a brick length
Fig. 1.5 Whole brick and half batt dimensions.
Fig. 1.5 Whole brick and half batt dimensions.
Fig. 1.7 The use of a closer in a one brick thick wall built in English bond. The drawing shows the two adjacent courses at the end of a wall as well as the face view of the wall over a number of courses. The cut illustrated is called a queen closer and is formed by cutting a brick ina plane vertical to the bed and along the centre line of the long axis of the brick. Note that there is a whole brick in alternate courses at the end of the wall next to the queen closer. This brick is referred to as the quoin header. We will explain the terminology properly as we look at particular bonds and bonding in more detail.
Fig. 1.7 The use of a closer in a one brick thick wall built in English bond. The drawing shows the two adjacent courses at the end of a wall as well as the face view of the wall over a number of courses. The cut illustrated is called a queen closer and is formed by cutting a brick ina plane vertical to the bed and along the centre line of the long axis of the brick. Note that there is a whole brick in alternate courses at the end of the wall next to the queen closer. This brick is referred to as the quoin header. We will explain the terminology properly as we look at particular bonds and bonding in more detail.
Fig. 1.8 Quarter batt.
Fig. 1.8 Quarter batt.
Fig. 1.9 Half batt. We will find out shortly in this chapter where and when to use these cuts when we look at how the various bonds are laid out course-by-course and situation-by-situation. What we must ask ourselves now is ‘why do we bother to bond in any particular way at all?’ Anyone who has played with old fashioned wooden blocks or their modern
Fig. 1.9 Half batt. We will find out shortly in this chapter where and when to use these cuts when we look at how the various bonds are laid out course-by-course and situation-by-situation. What we must ask ourselves now is ‘why do we bother to bond in any particular way at all?’ Anyone who has played with old fashioned wooden blocks or their modern
Fig. 1.12 Queen closer. widening area of brickwork, thus dissipating the load. This is illustrated in Figure 1.14. widening area of brickwork, thus dissipating the load. This is illustrated in Figure 1.14.
Fig. 1.12 Queen closer. widening area of brickwork, thus dissipating the load. This is illustrated in Figure 1.14. widening area of brickwork, thus dissipating the load. This is illustrated in Figure 1.14.
Fig. 1.10 Three-quarter batt. equivalent, Lego, will understand the need to connect vertical layers of these units together to increase the stability of an increasing height of built work. The broader the base and the more comprehensive the bonding of the layer, the higher the structure can be made. So it is with brick and blockwork walls. As we build we overlap the bricks in adjacent layers, thus ensuring that there is never a complete verti- cal layer joined only to the remainder of the structure with a layer of mortar.
Fig. 1.10 Three-quarter batt. equivalent, Lego, will understand the need to connect vertical layers of these units together to increase the stability of an increasing height of built work. The broader the base and the more comprehensive the bonding of the layer, the higher the structure can be made. So it is with brick and blockwork walls. As we build we overlap the bricks in adjacent layers, thus ensuring that there is never a complete verti- cal layer joined only to the remainder of the structure with a layer of mortar.
Fig. 1.13 Bevelled closer. Fig. 1.11 King closer. The second criterion is to spread any verti- cal loading on a part of the wall to an ever-
Fig. 1.13 Bevelled closer. Fig. 1.11 King closer. The second criterion is to spread any verti- cal loading on a part of the wall to an ever-
Fig. 1.15 Parts of a wall — scuntion, intersection and quoin.
Fig. 1.15 Parts of a wall — scuntion, intersection and quoin.
Fig. 1.14 Loadings on walls which are not bonded and those which are bonded.
Fig. 1.14 Loadings on walls which are not bonded and those which are bonded.
Fig. 1.16 Half brick thick wall in stretcher or common bond.
Fig. 1.16 Half brick thick wall in stretcher or common bond.
Fig. 1.18 One and one half brick thick wall in English bond.
Fig. 1.18 One and one half brick thick wall in English bond.
Fig. 1.19 One brick thick wall in Flemish bond. Fig. 1.20 One and one half brick thick wall in Flemish bond.
Fig. 1.19 One brick thick wall in Flemish bond. Fig. 1.20 One and one half brick thick wall in Flemish bond.
Fig. 1.21 Quetta bond — wall is always one and one half bricks thick. Neither of these bonds is as strong as Flemish bond but they are used in situations where strength is not such an issue, e.g. garden walls.
Fig. 1.21 Quetta bond — wall is always one and one half bricks thick. Neither of these bonds is as strong as Flemish bond but they are used in situations where strength is not such an issue, e.g. garden walls.
Fig. 1.23 Rattrap bond by one - wall is always one brick thick. As in Quetta bond, the bricks are laid on edge, resulting in an interesting face pattern. The notes regarding Quetta bond apply equally to Rattrap bond, with an even lesser chance of keeping weather effects out of the build- ing. A stronger bond than Quetta, it could be used for industrial or agricultural build- ings and of course can be made more weath- erproof by over-cladding. The bond is usually one stretcher to one header but it can also be
Fig. 1.23 Rattrap bond by one - wall is always one brick thick. As in Quetta bond, the bricks are laid on edge, resulting in an interesting face pattern. The notes regarding Quetta bond apply equally to Rattrap bond, with an even lesser chance of keeping weather effects out of the build- ing. A stronger bond than Quetta, it could be used for industrial or agricultural build- ings and of course can be made more weath- erproof by over-cladding. The bond is usually one stretcher to one header but it can also be
English garden wall bond
English garden wall bond
Fig. 1.24 Rattrap bond — orthographic view of quoin. Before leaving the patterns of bond, the ver- tical alignment of perpends must be studied. Two points in particular:
Fig. 1.24 Rattrap bond — orthographic view of quoin. Before leaving the patterns of bond, the ver- tical alignment of perpends must be studied. Two points in particular:
Fig. 1.28 Risbond joint at one course high wall venti- lator.
Fig. 1.28 Risbond joint at one course high wall venti- lator.
Fig. 1.29 Honeycomb brickwork. This is a method of building a half brick thick wall similar to stretcher or common bond but leaving a space between every brick in each course, as shown in Figure 1.29. Therefore the bond can be by quarters or thirds, which describes the overlap of bricks in adjacent courses. With a quarter lap the void is half a brick wide, and with a lap of a third, the void is a third of a brick wide.
Fig. 1.29 Honeycomb brickwork. This is a method of building a half brick thick wall similar to stretcher or common bond but leaving a space between every brick in each course, as shown in Figure 1.29. Therefore the bond can be by quarters or thirds, which describes the overlap of bricks in adjacent courses. With a quarter lap the void is half a brick wide, and with a lap of a third, the void is a third of a brick wide.
Fig. 1.30 Alternative use of term quoin.
Fig. 1.30 Alternative use of term quoin.
using snap headers in its construction. Indeed some of the cuts in the ‘solution’ would be termed snap headers. The term arises because any headers which show on the face of the wall are just ‘headers’ (whole bricks) snapped in two with the decorative header face show- ing and the rough cut end on the inside. This is illustrated in Figure 1.31.
using snap headers in its construction. Indeed some of the cuts in the ‘solution’ would be termed snap headers. The term arises because any headers which show on the face of the wall are just ‘headers’ (whole bricks) snapped in two with the decorative header face show- ing and the rough cut end on the inside. This is illustrated in Figure 1.31.
Fig. 1.32 Scuntion of one brick thick wall built both sides fair face; bricks finished one stretcher and two header faces.
Fig. 1.32 Scuntion of one brick thick wall built both sides fair face; bricks finished one stretcher and two header faces.
Fig. 1.34 Weather struck joint in pointing or jointing. It is more usual to strike the mortar off at an angle or some other shape to emphasise the joint and also to add to its weather shedding properties, as shown in Figure 1.34. The figure
Fig. 1.34 Weather struck joint in pointing or jointing. It is more usual to strike the mortar off at an angle or some other shape to emphasise the joint and also to add to its weather shedding properties, as shown in Figure 1.34. The figure
Fig. 1.33 Quoin of one brick thick wall built both sides fair face; bricks finished one stretcher and two header faces. show finished faces. In this case the cutting is best done with a power saw. If you doubt that, just go back and look at Figure 1.28 and the perpends at the half bricks. The wavy edge of a brick cut with a chisel or a brick hammer is clearly seen.
Fig. 1.33 Quoin of one brick thick wall built both sides fair face; bricks finished one stretcher and two header faces. show finished faces. In this case the cutting is best done with a power saw. If you doubt that, just go back and look at Figure 1.28 and the perpends at the half bricks. The wavy edge of a brick cut with a chisel or a brick hammer is clearly seen.
Fig. 1.35 A selection of joint shapes.
Fig. 1.35 A selection of joint shapes.
Fig. 1.37 Bucket handle pointing /jointing tool. General principles of bonding
Fig. 1.37 Bucket handle pointing /jointing tool. General principles of bonding
Sectional bond lines through back to front of wall as shown by heavy lines
Sectional bond lines through back to front of wall as shown by heavy lines
Fig. 1.41 150 thick block wall quoin.
Fig. 1.41 150 thick block wall quoin.
Fig. 1.40 100 thick block wall quoin. Unlike brickwork, block cutting is generally confined to cutting to a particular length to
Fig. 1.40 100 thick block wall quoin. Unlike brickwork, block cutting is generally confined to cutting to a particular length to
Fig. 1.39 Standard metric block dimensions and type by shape.
Fig. 1.39 Standard metric block dimensions and type by shape.
Table 1.2 Mortars for clay bricks and concrete blocks. Adding lime to the mix
Table 1.2 Mortars for clay bricks and concrete blocks. Adding lime to the mix
Fig. 1.43 Drum concrete mixer. Fig. 1.42 Schematic of drum and pan mortar/concrete mixing machines.
Fig. 1.43 Drum concrete mixer. Fig. 1.42 Schematic of drum and pan mortar/concrete mixing machines.
Fig. 1.44 Use of gauging box for proportioning ingre- dients in a mortar. Frost and snow
Fig. 1.44 Use of gauging box for proportioning ingre- dients in a mortar. Frost and snow
Fig. 2.1 Site with topsoil removed — concrete founda- tion in foreground.
Fig. 2.1 Site with topsoil removed — concrete founda- tion in foreground.
Fig. 2.3 Minimum depth to avoid frost heave.
Fig. 2.3 Minimum depth to avoid frost heave.
Fig. 2.4 Minimum depth in shrinkable clay.
Fig. 2.4 Minimum depth in shrinkable clay.
Fig. 2.2 Foundation penetrating mixed layer into sub- soil.
Fig. 2.2 Foundation penetrating mixed layer into sub- soil.
Fig. 2.6 Foundation with width calculated — thick- ness?
Fig. 2.6 Foundation with width calculated — thick- ness?
Fig. 2.5 Protection from heave in shrinkable clay.
Fig. 2.5 Protection from heave in shrinkable clay.
Fig. 2.8 Increasing width, increasing thickness.
Fig. 2.8 Increasing width, increasing thickness.
Fig. 2.7 Calculation of thickness of plain foundation.
Fig. 2.7 Calculation of thickness of plain foundation.
Fig. 2.9 Wall on footing on plain concrete foundation.
Fig. 2.9 Wall on footing on plain concrete foundation.
Fig. 2.10 Bending failure of plain concrete foundation.
Fig. 2.10 Bending failure of plain concrete foundation.
Fig. 2.11 Shear failure of plain concrete foundation.
Fig. 2.11 Shear failure of plain concrete foundation.
Fig. 2.12 Reinforcement of bottom layer of concrete foundation. in placing; don’t think things like that never happen-they do with monotonous regularity.
Fig. 2.12 Reinforcement of bottom layer of concrete foundation. in placing; don’t think things like that never happen-they do with monotonous regularity.
Fig. 2.13 Top layer reinforcement of concrete foun- dation. Trench fill is sometimes referred to as deep strip but to avoid confusion this text will refer only to trench fill.
Fig. 2.13 Top layer reinforcement of concrete foun- dation. Trench fill is sometimes referred to as deep strip but to avoid confusion this text will refer only to trench fill.
Fig. 2.14 Deep strip foundation. The operatives do not need to work in the trench as is the case with strip foundations. Support for the foundation is not just from the bottom of the trench but can also be from the friction of the sides of the foundation in the ground. This is illustrated in Figure 2.14.
Fig. 2.14 Deep strip foundation. The operatives do not need to work in the trench as is the case with strip foundations. Support for the foundation is not just from the bottom of the trench but can also be from the friction of the sides of the foundation in the ground. This is illustrated in Figure 2.14.
Fig. 2.15 Deep strip foundation in shrinkable clay. Trench fill foundations do not fail by bend- ing or punching shear. Shrinkable clay is often suitable for trench fill foundations. In this case the sides of the foundations should be lined with a ‘crushable’ material such as expanded polystyrene sheet. The additional work is il- lustrated in Figure 2.15.
Fig. 2.15 Deep strip foundation in shrinkable clay. Trench fill foundations do not fail by bend- ing or punching shear. Shrinkable clay is often suitable for trench fill foundations. In this case the sides of the foundations should be lined with a ‘crushable’ material such as expanded polystyrene sheet. The additional work is il- lustrated in Figure 2.15.
Fig. 2.16 Sketch of benchmark symbol. As shown in Figure 2.17, a wooden peg driven into the ground and set round with
Fig. 2.16 Sketch of benchmark symbol. As shown in Figure 2.17, a wooden peg driven into the ground and set round with
Fig. 2.19 Finished ground level at lower level than original ground level. Frost cover dictates that the bottom of the foundation is 450 below finished ground level, as shown in Figure 2.19. There should be no difficulty reaching a bearing with that min- imum depth. The foundation bottom must
Fig. 2.19 Finished ground level at lower level than original ground level. Frost cover dictates that the bottom of the foundation is 450 below finished ground level, as shown in Figure 2.19. There should be no difficulty reaching a bearing with that min- imum depth. The foundation bottom must
Fig. 2.18 Finished ground level at same level as orig- inal ground level.
Fig. 2.18 Finished ground level at same level as orig- inal ground level.
Fig. 2.17 Temporary benchmarks.
Fig. 2.17 Temporary benchmarks.
Fig. 2.20 Finished ground level at higher level than original ground level. reach down to bearing strata, as shown in Fig- ure 2.20. Cover is generally no problem. Note the large amount of filling. reach down to bearing strata, as shown in Fig- ure 2.20. Cover is generally no problem. Note the large amount of filling.
Fig. 2.20 Finished ground level at higher level than original ground level. reach down to bearing strata, as shown in Fig- ure 2.20. Cover is generally no problem. Note the large amount of filling. reach down to bearing strata, as shown in Fig- ure 2.20. Cover is generally no problem. Note the large amount of filling.
Fig. 2.21 Bearing strata sloping in relation to ground level (1).
Fig. 2.21 Bearing strata sloping in relation to ground level (1).
Fig. 2.22 Bearing strata sloping in relation to ground level (2).
Fig. 2.22 Bearing strata sloping in relation to ground level (2).
Fig. 2.23 Step in foundation — the rules.
Fig. 2.23 Step in foundation — the rules.
Fig. 2.25 Peg with nail, used to mark corner of a build- ing on site. Having found two corners of the proposed building, set out and mark the others. Use
Fig. 2.25 Peg with nail, used to mark corner of a build- ing on site. Having found two corners of the proposed building, set out and mark the others. Use
Fig. 2.24 1:500 site plan.
Fig. 2.24 1:500 site plan.
Fig. 2.26 Finding position of peg from two points. the Pythagoras theorem in any combination of right angled triangles, as shown in Figure 2.28.
Fig. 2.26 Finding position of peg from two points. the Pythagoras theorem in any combination of right angled triangles, as shown in Figure 2.28.
Fig. 2.27 Pegs on the building line marking building corners. We need profile boards, as illustrated in Fig- ure 2.31. Profile boards are set up at each cor- ner of the building. Each set ‘looks’ two ways along adjacent walls, as shown in Figure 2.32. To ‘see’ the outline of the building’s concrete foundation and walls, builder’s lines may be stretched from profile to profile. With all that string around, there is no room to get in to excavate for the foundation, but see how ex- cavations are marked out below.
Fig. 2.27 Pegs on the building line marking building corners. We need profile boards, as illustrated in Fig- ure 2.31. Profile boards are set up at each cor- ner of the building. Each set ‘looks’ two ways along adjacent walls, as shown in Figure 2.32. To ‘see’ the outline of the building’s concrete foundation and walls, builder’s lines may be stretched from profile to profile. With all that string around, there is no room to get in to excavate for the foundation, but see how ex- cavations are marked out below.
Fig. 2.29 Checking the diagonals.
Fig. 2.29 Checking the diagonals.
Fig. 2.28 Using the Pythagoras theorem to find other corners of building.
Fig. 2.28 Using the Pythagoras theorem to find other corners of building.
Fig. 2.30 Losing markers for building corners when excavating. Of course you may end up working for a large company which can afford electronic position and distance measurement (EPDM) equipment, and then there is no need for all these pegs and profiles. One or two strategi- cally placed pegs with a nail in the top, well
Fig. 2.30 Losing markers for building corners when excavating. Of course you may end up working for a large company which can afford electronic position and distance measurement (EPDM) equipment, and then there is no need for all these pegs and profiles. One or two strategi- cally placed pegs with a nail in the top, well
With builder's line stretching from notch to notch in opposite profile boards, the intersections of the strings mark the corners of various parts of the substructure. The black dot marks the corner of the wall to be built and should be exactly over the original peg and nail. Only put up builder’s line for the outline of excavation/concrete; people with picks and shovels or an excavator could break the
With builder's line stretching from notch to notch in opposite profile boards, the intersections of the strings mark the corners of various parts of the substructure. The black dot marks the corner of the wall to be built and should be exactly over the original peg and nail. Only put up builder’s line for the outline of excavation/concrete; people with picks and shovels or an excavator could break the
Fig. 2.34 Banksman and traveller.
Fig. 2.34 Banksman and traveller.
Fig. 2.33 JCB-type excavator. Heavy lines indicate hydraulic rams to operate arms etc. Accuracy is important so as not to waste money:
Fig. 2.33 JCB-type excavator. Heavy lines indicate hydraulic rams to operate arms etc. Accuracy is important so as not to waste money:
Fig. 2.35 Banksmen and traveller between profile boards.
Fig. 2.35 Banksmen and traveller between profile boards.
Fig. 2.36 Traveller in use in an excavation. IIR IEEE mee Excavating into the ground for any pur- pose can be dangerous due to the possible col- lapse of the sides. The deeper one goes, and the more friable the subsoil, the more dan- gerous it becomes. In certain circumstances it is impossible to excavate at all unless one uses timbering. This is the short-hand term for shoring, strutting and waling — a range of systems to support the sides of excavations to prevent collapse and protect workmen down in the excavation. Appendix F describes the techniques involved. Shoring, strutting and waling is temporary work and is, by conven- tion, never shown on drawings. It will not be Travellers are made of timber, and the criti- cal dimension is the height.The depth at which the concrete must be laid has already been de- termined. We know the level of the top of the profile boards. The height of the traveller is made slightly less than the difference between these two levels. The traveller is used by plac- ing it at the bottom of the excavation and having the banksman sight across the pro- file boards past the cross bar on the traveller,
Fig. 2.36 Traveller in use in an excavation. IIR IEEE mee Excavating into the ground for any pur- pose can be dangerous due to the possible col- lapse of the sides. The deeper one goes, and the more friable the subsoil, the more dan- gerous it becomes. In certain circumstances it is impossible to excavate at all unless one uses timbering. This is the short-hand term for shoring, strutting and waling — a range of systems to support the sides of excavations to prevent collapse and protect workmen down in the excavation. Appendix F describes the techniques involved. Shoring, strutting and waling is temporary work and is, by conven- tion, never shown on drawings. It will not be Travellers are made of timber, and the criti- cal dimension is the height.The depth at which the concrete must be laid has already been de- termined. We know the level of the top of the profile boards. The height of the traveller is made slightly less than the difference between these two levels. The traveller is used by plac- ing it at the bottom of the excavation and having the banksman sight across the pro- file boards past the cross bar on the traveller,
Fig. 2.38 Trimming sides of excavation.
Fig. 2.38 Trimming sides of excavation.
Fig. 2.40 Finding corner of wall on concrete founda- tion. Alignment of this first course of bricks is done using a builder’s level, with reference to the
Fig. 2.40 Finding corner of wall on concrete founda- tion. Alignment of this first course of bricks is done using a builder’s level, with reference to the
Fig. 2.39 Using the traveller to set concrete foundation thickness. Building the corner out trench and all measure of concrete thickness so provision must be made to allow this mea- surement to be made or maintained. The pro- file boards provide us with a unique reference line to control both thickness and the level of the upper surface. Reduce the height of the traveller so that it extends from top of profile to top of concrete. Drive pegs into the bottom of the trench such that the traveller intercepts the line of sight across the profiles, as shown in Figure 2.39. Pegs are spaced out about 1 metre apart down the centre of the trench.
Fig. 2.39 Using the traveller to set concrete foundation thickness. Building the corner out trench and all measure of concrete thickness so provision must be made to allow this mea- surement to be made or maintained. The pro- file boards provide us with a unique reference line to control both thickness and the level of the upper surface. Reduce the height of the traveller so that it extends from top of profile to top of concrete. Drive pegs into the bottom of the trench such that the traveller intercepts the line of sight across the profiles, as shown in Figure 2.39. Pegs are spaced out about 1 metre apart down the centre of the trench.
Fig. 2.41 Setting the first brick of the corner of wall on the foundation.
Fig. 2.41 Setting the first brick of the corner of wall on the foundation.
Fig. 2.43 Keeping the first course of bricks aligned on the foundation.
Fig. 2.43 Keeping the first course of bricks aligned on the foundation.
Fig. 2.44 Racking back. With the first few courses infilled, corners are built up again and infilling continued, as shown in Figure 2.46. Brickwork is built to a maximum of 1.50 m (20 courses) high in any one working day, irrespective of wall width. This height is referred to as a lift. Building any higher on unset mortar brings the risk
Fig. 2.44 Racking back. With the first few courses infilled, corners are built up again and infilling continued, as shown in Figure 2.46. Brickwork is built to a maximum of 1.50 m (20 courses) high in any one working day, irrespective of wall width. This height is referred to as a lift. Building any higher on unset mortar brings the risk
Fig. 2.42 Setting up the first five to six bricks at corners on the foundation. With corners built at each end of a length of wall, a builder’s line is strung from the
Fig. 2.42 Setting up the first five to six bricks at corners on the foundation. With corners built at each end of a length of wall, a builder’s line is strung from the
Fig. 2.46 Corners extended and ready for the next lift.
Fig. 2.46 Corners extended and ready for the next lift.
Fig. 2.49 Wall section with dimensions and annota- tion.
Fig. 2.49 Wall section with dimensions and annota- tion.
Fig. 2.48 Use of correct line thickness.
Fig. 2.48 Use of correct line thickness.
Fig. 2.47 Wall detail—symbols for materials in section.
Fig. 2.47 Wall detail—symbols for materials in section.
Fig. 2.50 Simple non-domestic substructure/ ground floor interface.
Fig. 2.50 Simple non-domestic substructure/ ground floor interface.
Fig. 2.53(a) Galvanised steel twisted wall ties.
Fig. 2.53(a) Galvanised steel twisted wall ties.
Fig. 2.53(c) Stainless steel chevron wall ties. Fig. 2.53(b) Galvanised steel wire butterfly wall ties.
Fig. 2.53(c) Stainless steel chevron wall ties. Fig. 2.53(b) Galvanised steel wire butterfly wall ties.
Fig. 2.53(d) Stainless steel wire wall ties.
Fig. 2.53(d) Stainless steel wire wall ties.
Fig. 2.51 Hollow wall/single layer concrete floor suit- able for domestic construction.
Fig. 2.51 Hollow wall/single layer concrete floor suit- able for domestic construction.
Fig. 2.52 Hollow wall/double layer concrete floor suitable for domestic construction.
Fig. 2.52 Hollow wall/double layer concrete floor suitable for domestic construction.
Fig. 2.55 Loadbearing block partition built off con- crete subfloor.
Fig. 2.55 Loadbearing block partition built off con- crete subfloor.
Fig. 2.54 Non-loadbearing block partition built off concrete subfloor.
Fig. 2.54 Non-loadbearing block partition built off concrete subfloor.
Fig. 2.56 Joists and boarding schematic.
Fig. 2.56 Joists and boarding schematic.
Fig. 2.57 Hollow wall/timber hung floor interface suitable for domestic construction.
Fig. 2.57 Hollow wall/timber hung floor interface suitable for domestic construction.
Fig. 2.58 Alternatives A, B and C of joist support.
Fig. 2.58 Alternatives A, B and C of joist support.
Fig. 2.59 Alternatives D and E.
Fig. 2.59 Alternatives D and E.
Fig. 2.60 Precast concrete T-beam and filler block floor. joists may be of concrete or wood and very occasionally of galvanised cold rolled steel.
Fig. 2.60 Precast concrete T-beam and filler block floor. joists may be of concrete or wood and very occasionally of galvanised cold rolled steel.
Fig. 2.61 Alternative filler block floor construction. The thickness of any screed placed over the sub-floor depends on the purpose to which the floor will be put and the type of fin- ish placed on the screed. Insulation may be placed over the floor under the screed, in which case a minimum thickness of 65 screed would have to be laid. In addition, some thin screeds would benefit from the inclusion of a light steel reinforcement — galvanised chicken wire would be adequate to prevent serious cracking due to temperature and/or moisture movement". A floor incorporating heating cables or pipes must have a minimum screed thickness of 65.
Fig. 2.61 Alternative filler block floor construction. The thickness of any screed placed over the sub-floor depends on the purpose to which the floor will be put and the type of fin- ish placed on the screed. Insulation may be placed over the floor under the screed, in which case a minimum thickness of 65 screed would have to be laid. In addition, some thin screeds would benefit from the inclusion of a light steel reinforcement — galvanised chicken wire would be adequate to prevent serious cracking due to temperature and/or moisture movement". A floor incorporating heating cables or pipes must have a minimum screed thickness of 65.
Fig. 2.62 Permanent formwork for hung concrete, cast in-situ floors.
Fig. 2.62 Permanent formwork for hung concrete, cast in-situ floors.
Fig. 2.65 Sleeper walls in the above substructure. ULLILVOCL LI GALLIC VV CGI CUIIOLIULCLUUIE Tit Vi aoa na li UU. Figure 2.64 is a photograph of a fairly sim- ilar construction, the main differences being We will return to this detail when we look at timber frame wall construction in Chapter 3.
Fig. 2.65 Sleeper walls in the above substructure. ULLILVOCL LI GALLIC VV CGI CUIIOLIULCLUUIE Tit Vi aoa na li UU. Figure 2.64 is a photograph of a fairly sim- ilar construction, the main differences being We will return to this detail when we look at timber frame wall construction in Chapter 3.
Fig. 2.64 Photograph of substructure as detailed in Figure 2.63.
Fig. 2.64 Photograph of substructure as detailed in Figure 2.63.
Fig. 2.63 Solid blockwork wall and brick/block cav- ity wall as a substructure for a timber frame panel construction.
Fig. 2.63 Solid blockwork wall and brick/block cav- ity wall as a substructure for a timber frame panel construction.
Fig. 3.1 Frames with and without racking.
Fig. 3.1 Frames with and without racking.
Table 3.1 Mortar mixes suitable for external rendering of masonry walls. a year or two while EVA is fully waterproof and should last the life of the render. EVA can be purchased as a powder or a liq- uid. Recent research has shown that liquid EVA blocks most of the pores, thus helping to retain water within the wall rather than let- ting the wall ‘breathe’. Powdered EVA is more successful. It does not block the pores but lines them, thus repelling solid water trying to en- ter while retaining a fully open surface for evaporation.
Table 3.1 Mortar mixes suitable for external rendering of masonry walls. a year or two while EVA is fully waterproof and should last the life of the render. EVA can be purchased as a powder or a liq- uid. Recent research has shown that liquid EVA blocks most of the pores, thus helping to retain water within the wall rather than let- ting the wall ‘breathe’. Powdered EVA is more successful. It does not block the pores but lines them, thus repelling solid water trying to en- ter while retaining a fully open surface for evaporation.
Fig. 3.3 Cracking in lightweight concrete wall with dense concrete lintel.
Fig. 3.3 Cracking in lightweight concrete wall with dense concrete lintel.
Fig. 3.4 Schematic of cavity wall. Cavities have been set at a standard width of 50 (or 2 in) since their introduction. Wider cavities can have advantages in terms of be- ing able to hold more insulation, but going beyond 75 makes the use of ordinary wall ties a problem structurally. A wall with a wider cavity has to be specially designed, perhaps having special wall ties and so on. In addition to the structural problems, a wider cavity al- lows the air in the cavity to start circulating.
Fig. 3.4 Schematic of cavity wall. Cavities have been set at a standard width of 50 (or 2 in) since their introduction. Wider cavities can have advantages in terms of be- ing able to hold more insulation, but going beyond 75 makes the use of ordinary wall ties a problem structurally. A wall with a wider cavity has to be specially designed, perhaps having special wall ties and so on. In addition to the structural problems, a wider cavity al- lows the air in the cavity to start circulating.
Fig. 3.5 Block cavity wall. Wall ties are no longer made of wrought iron (which resisted corrosion well) but of gal- vanised mild steel, stainless steel or plastic.
Fig. 3.5 Block cavity wall. Wall ties are no longer made of wrought iron (which resisted corrosion well) but of gal- vanised mild steel, stainless steel or plastic.
Fig. 3.6 Selection of wall tie types. Some metal ties are made of wire, some of sheet or plate. Plastic ties are injection moulded from polypropylene. All have split or shaped ends to build into the mortar bed, and shanks with various forms of drip. Fig- ure 3.6 shows sketches of several different types of tie:
Fig. 3.6 Selection of wall tie types. Some metal ties are made of wire, some of sheet or plate. Plastic ties are injection moulded from polypropylene. All have split or shaped ends to build into the mortar bed, and shanks with various forms of drip. Fig- ure 3.6 shows sketches of several different types of tie:
Fig. 3.7 Keeping the cavity clear of mortar droppings.
Fig. 3.7 Keeping the cavity clear of mortar droppings.
Fig. 3.8 Possible placement of wall insulation.
Fig. 3.8 Possible placement of wall insulation.
Fig. 3.9 Retaining clip for partial fill insulation in cavity. Problems of dampness crossing the cavity have been experienced and have been largely due to mortar droppings left on wall ties. In the ‘clean’ cavity, the foam seals round the shank of the wall tie. If there are mortar
Fig. 3.9 Retaining clip for partial fill insulation in cavity. Problems of dampness crossing the cavity have been experienced and have been largely due to mortar droppings left on wall ties. In the ‘clean’ cavity, the foam seals round the shank of the wall tie. If there are mortar
Fig. 3.10 Wall strapping on inner face of wall with insulation and boarding.
Fig. 3.10 Wall strapping on inner face of wall with insulation and boarding.
Ifa very positive moisture seal is required, it is possible to have the laminate made up with a polythene or foil layer between the foam and the board. The joints of the boards can be made up with a rebate and the two layers of film or foil can be sealed together. This is illustrated in Figure 3.11. Adhesives used are generally
Ifa very positive moisture seal is required, it is possible to have the laminate made up with a polythene or foil layer between the foam and the board. The joints of the boards can be made up with a rebate and the two layers of film or foil can be sealed together. This is illustrated in Figure 3.11. Adhesives used are generally
Fig. 3.13 Starting a timber frame building off a con- crete floor slab.
Fig. 3.13 Starting a timber frame building off a con- crete floor slab.
Fig. 3.12 Timber joisted floor as base for traditional timber frame building.
Fig. 3.12 Timber joisted floor as base for traditional timber frame building.
Fig. 3.14 Schematic showing platform and balloon frame construction.
Fig. 3.14 Schematic showing platform and balloon frame construction.
Fig. 3.15 Some joints in traditional frame construc- tion.
Fig. 3.15 Some joints in traditional frame construc- tion.
Fig. 3.16 Traditional timber cladding and improved methods of cladding over insulated walls.
Fig. 3.16 Traditional timber cladding and improved methods of cladding over insulated walls.
Fig. 3.18 Modern timber frame — eaves/wallhead detail. that construction at eaves level, and Fig- ure 3.19 shows the junction of an upper floor with the timber panels. Note that a lot of the annotation has been omitted for the sake of clarity. On properly scaled detail drawings the annotation would be complete, either on the detail or in a notes column.
Fig. 3.18 Modern timber frame — eaves/wallhead detail. that construction at eaves level, and Fig- ure 3.19 shows the junction of an upper floor with the timber panels. Note that a lot of the annotation has been omitted for the sake of clarity. On properly scaled detail drawings the annotation would be complete, either on the detail or in a notes column.
Fig. 3.17 Modern timber frame — substructure detail.
Fig. 3.17 Modern timber frame — substructure detail.
Fig. 3.20 Hold down strap from timber frame to top of foundation.
Fig. 3.20 Hold down strap from timber frame to top of foundation.
Fig. 3.19 Modern timber frame — intermediate floor junction detail.
Fig. 3.19 Modern timber frame — intermediate floor junction detail.
Fig. 3.22 Just two of many types of wall tie suitable for timber frame cladding. Fig. 3.21 Weep as a ventilator at the wallhead.
Fig. 3.22 Just two of many types of wall tie suitable for timber frame cladding. Fig. 3.21 Weep as a ventilator at the wallhead.
Fig. 3.23 Vertical fire stopping at corners of a building. The details you don’t see are often more im- portant than the ones you do. The wall panels we have looked at earlier were all fire stopped horizontally to reduce the spread of fire up the cavity between panel and cladding. However, there is a need to fire stop vertically to reduce the spread of fire horizontally. This is done at corners; Figure 3.23 gives a detail while Fig- ure 3.24 shows a photograph. What is not im- mediately apparent in the photograph is that the horizontal fire stop is there but shows only as a bump under the breather paper — just be- low the scaffold boards. Now why didn’t the builder put up the corner ones as well, then put on the building paper? Well, the panels come with the paper already fixed in place and so when the paper from the upper panels was dropped, it covered the fire stop. Then they came along and fixed the corner fire stops.
Fig. 3.23 Vertical fire stopping at corners of a building. The details you don’t see are often more im- portant than the ones you do. The wall panels we have looked at earlier were all fire stopped horizontally to reduce the spread of fire up the cavity between panel and cladding. However, there is a need to fire stop vertically to reduce the spread of fire horizontally. This is done at corners; Figure 3.23 gives a detail while Fig- ure 3.24 shows a photograph. What is not im- mediately apparent in the photograph is that the horizontal fire stop is there but shows only as a bump under the breather paper — just be- low the scaffold boards. Now why didn’t the builder put up the corner ones as well, then put on the building paper? Well, the panels come with the paper already fixed in place and so when the paper from the upper panels was dropped, it covered the fire stop. Then they came along and fixed the corner fire stops.
Fig. 3.24 Vertical and horizontal fire stopping.
Fig. 3.24 Vertical and horizontal fire stopping.
Fig. 3.25 A ring beam and joisted base ready for panel erection. Figure 3.25 is a photograph of a ground floor built on a block substructure and ready to have wall panels erected on it. The wall plate with the ring beam and the sole plate dou- bler are all there round the outside. Then there are sleeper joists with solid strutting across the mid span of the joists. What is not terri- bly clear is the two sleeper walls with wall plates supporting the joists at their mid third points.
Fig. 3.25 A ring beam and joisted base ready for panel erection. Figure 3.25 is a photograph of a ground floor built on a block substructure and ready to have wall panels erected on it. The wall plate with the ring beam and the sole plate dou- bler are all there round the outside. Then there are sleeper joists with solid strutting across the mid span of the joists. What is not terri- bly clear is the two sleeper walls with wall plates supporting the joists at their mid third points.
Fig. 3.27 Intermediate floor/panel junction over a window opening.
Fig. 3.27 Intermediate floor/panel junction over a window opening.
Fig. 3.26 Panels erected on a base.
Fig. 3.26 Panels erected on a base.
Fig. 3.31 General partition details.
Fig. 3.31 General partition details.
Fig. 3.33 Partition base in sandwich floor construc- tion.
Fig. 3.33 Partition base in sandwich floor construc- tion.
Fig. 3.32 Acoustic partition.
Fig. 3.32 Acoustic partition.
Fig. 3.34 Expansion joints — a selection of details.
Fig. 3.34 Expansion joints — a selection of details.
Fig. 3.36 A mastic sealed joint in a complex wall of reconstructed stone and rendered blockwork. Fig. 3.35 A proprietary joint of plastic in a rendered finish block wall.
Fig. 3.36 A mastic sealed joint in a complex wall of reconstructed stone and rendered blockwork. Fig. 3.35 A proprietary joint of plastic in a rendered finish block wall.
Fig. 3.38 Proprietary expansion joint cover.
Fig. 3.38 Proprietary expansion joint cover.
Fig. 3.37 Faulty joint being built in the block cladding of a timber frame house.
Fig. 3.37 Faulty joint being built in the block cladding of a timber frame house.
Fig. 4.1 Alignment of joists, span and wall rest. It may seem obvious, especially after look- ing at ground floor construction in timber, but it has to be stated that all joists are built in with the long dimension of the cross-section in the vertical plane, as shown in Figure 4.1. The reader can test the effect of using a supporting timber on ‘edge’ or on ‘flat’ by placing a ruler across the gap between two books and press- ing down at the middle of the span. The ruler is much stiffer when it is on edge but is prone to buckle sideways. This is due to the very small width/span ratio. Joists of course are restrained at each end and in short spans do not buckle because the ratio is much higher. In long spans we can employ techniques such as strutting to prevent buckling. The various al- ternative forms of strutting are discussed later in this chapter.
Fig. 4.1 Alignment of joists, span and wall rest. It may seem obvious, especially after look- ing at ground floor construction in timber, but it has to be stated that all joists are built in with the long dimension of the cross-section in the vertical plane, as shown in Figure 4.1. The reader can test the effect of using a supporting timber on ‘edge’ or on ‘flat’ by placing a ruler across the gap between two books and press- ing down at the middle of the span. The ruler is much stiffer when it is on edge but is prone to buckle sideways. This is due to the very small width/span ratio. Joists of course are restrained at each end and in short spans do not buckle because the ratio is much higher. In long spans we can employ techniques such as strutting to prevent buckling. The various al- ternative forms of strutting are discussed later in this chapter.
Fig. 4.3 Heavy gauge joist hangers supporting upper floor joists. oe <_ eee ee ene RN In modern timber frame construction, the upper floor joists are supported by the wall
Fig. 4.3 Heavy gauge joist hangers supporting upper floor joists. oe <_ eee ee ene RN In modern timber frame construction, the upper floor joists are supported by the wall
Fig. 4.5 Upper floor joists in timber frame construc- tion (2). photograph the joists are seen resting on top of the timber frame panels; the ring beam can be clearly seen, as can the dwangs or noggings for the edge of the sheet flooring material. The timber frame panel shows a double top runner at the left-hand side but uses a steel channel section to provide support over an opening under the remaining joists. See Chap- ter 5, Openings in Masonry Walls, where the use of metal sections in timber frame construc- tion is discussed in more detail.
Fig. 4.5 Upper floor joists in timber frame construc- tion (2). photograph the joists are seen resting on top of the timber frame panels; the ring beam can be clearly seen, as can the dwangs or noggings for the edge of the sheet flooring material. The timber frame panel shows a double top runner at the left-hand side but uses a steel channel section to provide support over an opening under the remaining joists. See Chap- ter 5, Openings in Masonry Walls, where the use of metal sections in timber frame construc- tion is discussed in more detail.
Fig. 4.4 Upper floor joists in timber frame construc- tion (1). ee OE SEE eee eee Figure 4.5 is the closest it was possible to get to Figure 4.4 for comparative purposes. In the
Fig. 4.4 Upper floor joists in timber frame construc- tion (1). ee OE SEE eee eee Figure 4.5 is the closest it was possible to get to Figure 4.4 for comparative purposes. In the
When spans start to exceed this range it is time to think of alternative ways to sup- port the joists — in other words to break the span into two or more manageable propor- tions. The best options are to have a load- bearing partition under the joists or provide a beam of some kind. This can be done by mak- ing use of partitions on the lower storey as loadbearing partitions, as shown in Figure 4.7. The partition has a door opening spanned by a timber lintel supported on cripple studs with doubled top runners supporting the first floor joists. Note the joists do not fall directly above the studs as these timbers are at different cen- tres, but the top runner of the partition is a double layer of timber. Breaking the span of joists can also be achieved by:
When spans start to exceed this range it is time to think of alternative ways to sup- port the joists — in other words to break the span into two or more manageable propor- tions. The best options are to have a load- bearing partition under the joists or provide a beam of some kind. This can be done by mak- ing use of partitions on the lower storey as loadbearing partitions, as shown in Figure 4.7. The partition has a door opening spanned by a timber lintel supported on cripple studs with doubled top runners supporting the first floor joists. Note the joists do not fall directly above the studs as these timbers are at different cen- tres, but the top runner of the partition is a double layer of timber. Breaking the span of joists can also be achieved by:
Fig. 4.7 Upper floor joists supported by a partition (2).
Fig. 4.7 Upper floor joists supported by a partition (2).
Fig. 4.8 Flitched beam from the 1970s.
Fig. 4.8 Flitched beam from the 1970s.
Fig. 4.10 Flitched beam detail with minimal steel content.
Fig. 4.10 Flitched beam detail with minimal steel content.
Fig. 4.12 Centres of joists in relation to wall and ‘last space’ and last wall.
Fig. 4.12 Centres of joists in relation to wall and ‘last space’ and last wall.
Joist spacing uneven or greater than required for sheet finish Fig. 4.13 Brandering.
Joist spacing uneven or greater than required for sheet finish Fig. 4.13 Brandering.
Fig. 4.15 Solid strutting and steel and timber herringbone strutting. The spans of upper floor joists are inevitably longer than ground floor joists, and, with the Figure 4.15 is a detail of solid and herring- bone strutting in steel and timber, and Fig- ure 4.16 is a photograph of a mock-up of the galvanised steel strutting. Note that the joists
Fig. 4.15 Solid strutting and steel and timber herringbone strutting. The spans of upper floor joists are inevitably longer than ground floor joists, and, with the Figure 4.15 is a detail of solid and herring- bone strutting in steel and timber, and Fig- ure 4.16 is a photograph of a mock-up of the galvanised steel strutting. Note that the joists
Fig. 4.14 Cheek pieces.
Fig. 4.14 Cheek pieces.
Fig. 4.16 Galvanised steel herringbone strutting.
Fig. 4.16 Galvanised steel herringbone strutting.
Fig. 4.18 Timber herringbone strutting.
Fig. 4.18 Timber herringbone strutting.
Fig. 4.17 Solid timber strutting.
Fig. 4.17 Solid timber strutting.
Fig. 4.19 Common joists, trimmers and trimming joists.
Fig. 4.19 Common joists, trimmers and trimming joists.
Fig. 4.20 Key to Figure 4.19.
Fig. 4.20 Key to Figure 4.19.
Fig. 4.22 Bridling joists around large pipes.
Fig. 4.22 Bridling joists around large pipes.
Fig. 4.24 Clay flue liner. Masonry flues must now include a liner which is generally made of fired clay; a typi- cal example is shown in Figure 4.24. The liner is made in lengths of around 450 mm and the joints are joggled. Note that the joggle can be built upside down, which would allow any tars from the fuel being burned which con- dense on the cooler wall of the liner to run out of the joint, thus staining the surrounding surfaces. Figure 4.25 shows a flue through a floor and top of chimney breast, with the joint in the liner laid correctly.
Fig. 4.24 Clay flue liner. Masonry flues must now include a liner which is generally made of fired clay; a typi- cal example is shown in Figure 4.24. The liner is made in lengths of around 450 mm and the joints are joggled. Note that the joggle can be built upside down, which would allow any tars from the fuel being burned which con- dense on the cooler wall of the liner to run out of the joint, thus staining the surrounding surfaces. Figure 4.25 shows a flue through a floor and top of chimney breast, with the joint in the liner laid correctly.
Fig. 4.23 Schematic of flues passing through floor.
Fig. 4.23 Schematic of flues passing through floor.
Fig. 4.25 Flue passing through floor at top of chimney breast. When framing up openings in floors with larger joists, the trimmer and trimmer joist joint is usually a tusk tenoned joint (see Appendix C). Housed joints are used for joists to trimmer junctions. Modern domestic
Fig. 4.25 Flue passing through floor at top of chimney breast. When framing up openings in floors with larger joists, the trimmer and trimmer joist joint is usually a tusk tenoned joint (see Appendix C). Housed joints are used for joists to trimmer junctions. Modern domestic
Fig. 4.26 Proprietary flue system support and sealing plates. construction frequently uses pressed steel hangers for all joints. Figure 4.27 shows joists fixed to a trimmer with pressed steel hangers. Note that these hangers are of thin galvanised steel sheet; that many small galvanised nails are used to fix them; and that the top of the hanger is bent flat over the top of the joist and nailed down. The latter can be seen on some of the earlier photographs.
Fig. 4.26 Proprietary flue system support and sealing plates. construction frequently uses pressed steel hangers for all joints. Figure 4.27 shows joists fixed to a trimmer with pressed steel hangers. Note that these hangers are of thin galvanised steel sheet; that many small galvanised nails are used to fix them; and that the top of the hanger is bent flat over the top of the joist and nailed down. The latter can be seen on some of the earlier photographs.
Fig. 4.29 Light pressed steel hanger for joining joists. Alternative materials for joisting
Fig. 4.29 Light pressed steel hanger for joining joists. Alternative materials for joisting
Fig. 4.28 Heavy gauge hanger for fixing joists to masonry. Fig. 4.27 Floor joists fixed to trimmer with pressed steel hangers.
Fig. 4.28 Heavy gauge hanger for fixing joists to masonry. Fig. 4.27 Floor joists fixed to trimmer with pressed steel hangers.
Fig. 4.30 Posijoists. Another lattice style joist is made by a com- pany called Metsec. The strength is from the all steel construction, the top and bottom chords being made from pressed steel chan- nels and the lattice from a continuous length of steel tube bent and welded between the channels. To make the joist ‘joiner friendly’, timber inserts are crimped into the steel chan- nels, providing a fixing for both floor boarding and ceiling boarding.
Fig. 4.30 Posijoists. Another lattice style joist is made by a com- pany called Metsec. The strength is from the all steel construction, the top and bottom chords being made from pressed steel chan- nels and the lattice from a continuous length of steel tube bent and welded between the channels. To make the joist ‘joiner friendly’, timber inserts are crimped into the steel chan- nels, providing a fixing for both floor boarding and ceiling boarding.
Fig. 4.31 All timber, man-made joists. For more information try the website http:/ /www.metsec.co.uk/metsec/en
Fig. 4.31 All timber, man-made joists. For more information try the website http:/ /www.metsec.co.uk/metsec/en
Fig. 4.32 Upper floor supported with Finnjoists. joist. The straight webbed joist can use a heav- ier material for the web and it is frequently a type known as OSB - oriented strand board — in thicknesses from 11 upwards. There is a proprietary system marketed under the name Finnjoist which uses OSB for the web, but in- stead of solid timber for the flanges, it uses laminated timber.
Fig. 4.32 Upper floor supported with Finnjoists. joist. The straight webbed joist can use a heav- ier material for the web and it is frequently a type known as OSB - oriented strand board — in thicknesses from 11 upwards. There is a proprietary system marketed under the name Finnjoist which uses OSB for the web, but in- stead of solid timber for the flanges, it uses laminated timber.
Fig. 4.33 OSB sheet. Because the wavy webbed joist requires a more flexible web material, plywood or even hardboard is used. If you doubt the strength of hardboard you really must revise your think- ing. As part of any stressed panel construc- tion even 3 thick hardboard can be incredibly
Fig. 4.33 OSB sheet. Because the wavy webbed joist requires a more flexible web material, plywood or even hardboard is used. If you doubt the strength of hardboard you really must revise your think- ing. As part of any stressed panel construc- tion even 3 thick hardboard can be incredibly
Fig. 4.34 Traditional sound proofing.
Fig. 4.34 Traditional sound proofing.
Fig. 4.35 Sound and fireproofing 1960s style. Figure 4.35 shows a detail from the 1960s - a floor with sound and fire proofing as used
Fig. 4.35 Sound and fireproofing 1960s style. Figure 4.35 shows a detail from the 1960s - a floor with sound and fire proofing as used
Fig. 4.36 Fireproofing an RSJ spine beam.
Fig. 4.36 Fireproofing an RSJ spine beam.
Fig. 4.37 Up-to-date sound and fireproofing of an upper floor.
Fig. 4.37 Up-to-date sound and fireproofing of an upper floor.
Fig. 4.39 Restraining straps. The joists in this particular building are reg- ularised out of 250 sawn timbers so the dwang should be at least 125 deep. It shows around 50 x 50. What is not shown in the photograph is the packing between the wall and the first joist. This was a plain square section timber. Wedging would have been better. This was
Fig. 4.39 Restraining straps. The joists in this particular building are reg- ularised out of 250 sawn timbers so the dwang should be at least 125 deep. It shows around 50 x 50. What is not shown in the photograph is the packing between the wall and the first joist. This was a plain square section timber. Wedging would have been better. This was
Fig. 4.38 Detail of support from floor of masonry walls (1).
Fig. 4.38 Detail of support from floor of masonry walls (1).
Fig. 4.43 Match board fixing clip. In every instance the finish mentioned has been plasterboard. Plasterboard is not just available in one form, but in a variety of sizes, thicknesses, configurations, composi- tions, finishes and a host of sensible combi- nations of these. Much of that information is summarised in Appendix H, Gypsum wall board, or can be readily obtained from the websites quoted there.
Fig. 4.43 Match board fixing clip. In every instance the finish mentioned has been plasterboard. Plasterboard is not just available in one form, but in a variety of sizes, thicknesses, configurations, composi- tions, finishes and a host of sensible combi- nations of these. Much of that information is summarised in Appendix H, Gypsum wall board, or can be readily obtained from the websites quoted there.
Fig. 4.40 Detail of support from floor of masonry walls (2).
Fig. 4.40 Detail of support from floor of masonry walls (2).
Fig. 4.41 Detail of support from floor of masonry walls (3).
Fig. 4.41 Detail of support from floor of masonry walls (3).
Fig. 5.2 Saving over in brickwork at ducts, pipes and ventilators.
Fig. 5.2 Saving over in brickwork at ducts, pipes and ventilators.
Fig. 5.5 Pre-1970s jamb detail, rendered external finish.
Fig. 5.5 Pre-1970s jamb detail, rendered external finish.
Fig. 5.3 Terminology associated with openings in walls. the DPC at jambs and head was never quite satisfactory.
Fig. 5.3 Terminology associated with openings in walls. the DPC at jambs and head was never quite satisfactory.
Fig. 5.4 Pre-1970s sill and head details, rendered ex- ternal finish.
Fig. 5.4 Pre-1970s sill and head details, rendered ex- ternal finish.
Fig. 5.6 Pre-1970s sill, jamb and head details, facing brick external finish.
Fig. 5.6 Pre-1970s sill, jamb and head details, facing brick external finish.
Fig. 5.8 Photograph of 1990s head, sill and mullion in artificial stone.
Fig. 5.8 Photograph of 1990s head, sill and mullion in artificial stone.
Fig. 5.10 Steel lintel at inner leaf of opening. Figure 5.1lisa photograph of a cavity clo- sure in blockwork. Note how a cut block closes It is important to note that frames for win- dows or doors are only fastened to the walls through the jambs and that in the traditional methods this fastening went into the masonry, closing the cavity.
Fig. 5.10 Steel lintel at inner leaf of opening. Figure 5.1lisa photograph of a cavity clo- sure in blockwork. Note how a cut block closes It is important to note that frames for win- dows or doors are only fastened to the walls through the jambs and that in the traditional methods this fastening went into the masonry, closing the cavity.
Fig. 5.7 Photograph of 1990s sill and jamb.
Fig. 5.7 Photograph of 1990s sill and jamb.
Fig. 5.9 Detail of mullion-sill junction.
Fig. 5.9 Detail of mullion-sill junction.
Fig. 5.12 Window frame cramp.
Fig. 5.12 Window frame cramp.
Fig. 5.11 Detail of checked jamb. the cavity and bonds into the inner leaf in al- ternate courses, and that a cut of blockwork is used for the intermediate courses, all bedded up solid in mortar and with a vertical strip of DPC between closure and the outer leaf. Compare these photographs with Figure 5.4, the general sections.
Fig. 5.11 Detail of checked jamb. the cavity and bonds into the inner leaf in al- ternate courses, and that a cut of blockwork is used for the intermediate courses, all bedded up solid in mortar and with a vertical strip of DPC between closure and the outer leaf. Compare these photographs with Figure 5.4, the general sections.
Fig. 5.13 Eliminating cold bridging at sill and head.
Fig. 5.13 Eliminating cold bridging at sill and head.
Fig. 5.14 Alternative jamb arrangements and cavity closure to eliminate cold bridging. ihe figures which follow show variations on the finishing of various parts of open- ings incorporating different materials and
Fig. 5.14 Alternative jamb arrangements and cavity closure to eliminate cold bridging. ihe figures which follow show variations on the finishing of various parts of open- ings incorporating different materials and
inner lintel here is rectangular and that a DPC is dressed over it and down over the angle to project beyond the angle iron. DPC projection is necessary in all the details where it is shown to provide a good drip and prevent water be- ing drawn under the lintel and so coming in contact with the frame. Mastic pointing is used at the head of the frame.
inner lintel here is rectangular and that a DPC is dressed over it and down over the angle to project beyond the angle iron. DPC projection is necessary in all the details where it is shown to provide a good drip and prevent water be- ing drawn under the lintel and so coming in contact with the frame. Mastic pointing is used at the head of the frame.
Fig. 5.16 Pressed steel lintel (2). some manufacturers do not recommend one. Figure 5.16 shows an IG lintel, available in gal- vanised steel and stainless steel. Sealing the window frame and foam filling etc. is all the same as the earlier lintels. Figure 5.17 shows a very old form of lintelling when using a facing brick outer leaf: the mild steel angle iron. Gal- vanised angles are more readily available and are to be preferred to plain steel. Note that the Fig. 5.17 Angle iron lintel.
Fig. 5.16 Pressed steel lintel (2). some manufacturers do not recommend one. Figure 5.16 shows an IG lintel, available in gal- vanised steel and stainless steel. Sealing the window frame and foam filling etc. is all the same as the earlier lintels. Figure 5.17 shows a very old form of lintelling when using a facing brick outer leaf: the mild steel angle iron. Gal- vanised angles are more readily available and are to be preferred to plain steel. Note that the Fig. 5.17 Angle iron lintel.
Fig. 5.15 Pressed steel inner lintel (1).
Fig. 5.15 Pressed steel inner lintel (1).
Before leaving lintels the term ‘bellcast’ re- quires expansion. It is obvious how this pro- jection of a roughcast or rendered finish got its name. It is not formed directly by applying the mortar in that shape; that would not be possible. Instead, early craftsmen fixed a tem- porary batten to the masonry background and worked to the thickness of that batten. Mod- ern practice uses either a galvanised steel bead ora plastic bead, which is fixed to the wall and the render brought to that. Figure 5.19 shows a typical section and its application, while Fig- ure 5.20 is a photograph of three galvanised beads, from the left:
Before leaving lintels the term ‘bellcast’ re- quires expansion. It is obvious how this pro- jection of a roughcast or rendered finish got its name. It is not formed directly by applying the mortar in that shape; that would not be possible. Instead, early craftsmen fixed a tem- porary batten to the masonry background and worked to the thickness of that batten. Mod- ern practice uses either a galvanised steel bead ora plastic bead, which is fixed to the wall and the render brought to that. Figure 5.19 shows a typical section and its application, while Fig- ure 5.20 is a photograph of three galvanised beads, from the left:
Fig. 5.20 Photograph of bellcast bead and corner bead. Fig. 5.19 Bellcast bead.
Fig. 5.20 Photograph of bellcast bead and corner bead. Fig. 5.19 Bellcast bead.
Fig. 5.21 Proprietary cavity closure at head and jambs. metal and is made by slitting the metal sheet and then pulling it apart.
Fig. 5.21 Proprietary cavity closure at head and jambs. metal and is made by slitting the metal sheet and then pulling it apart.
Fig. 5.23 Proprietary cavity closure at sill. Tiles, both plain roofing of clay or concrete and quarry floor tiles, make good sills as they are made to prevent the entry of water. The detail is illustrated in Figure 5.25. They must, however, be laid in a minimum of two courses with the bond broken and in a strong mor- tar, mix 1:5 or even 1:4. Any DPC must be brought down at least one, preferably two, brick courses below.
Fig. 5.23 Proprietary cavity closure at sill. Tiles, both plain roofing of clay or concrete and quarry floor tiles, make good sills as they are made to prevent the entry of water. The detail is illustrated in Figure 5.25. They must, however, be laid in a minimum of two courses with the bond broken and in a strong mor- tar, mix 1:5 or even 1:4. Any DPC must be brought down at least one, preferably two, brick courses below.
Fig. 5.24 Alternative sill in PCC.
Fig. 5.24 Alternative sill in PCC.
detail is shown in Figure 5.29 and a photo- graph in Figure 5.30. with the reveal finished in the same way as the wall. Note that the second arrangement re- duces the amount of timber used for the door frame and the stop facing; there are no plinth blocks to make and fix and no architrave; there are + round beads; and plaster and skirting
detail is shown in Figure 5.29 and a photo- graph in Figure 5.30. with the reveal finished in the same way as the wall. Note that the second arrangement re- duces the amount of timber used for the door frame and the stop facing; there are no plinth blocks to make and fix and no architrave; there are + round beads; and plaster and skirting
Fig. 5.29 Threshold (2). have to return into the reveal from the wall face. This detail is more economical than the first arrangement.
Fig. 5.29 Threshold (2). have to return into the reveal from the wall face. This detail is more economical than the first arrangement.
Fig. 5.30 Photograph of threshold (2).
Fig. 5.30 Photograph of threshold (2).
confused with a threshold bar), a plain tim- ber section, usually hardwood. This may be only the width of the door (irrespective of the actual frame width) or the width of the frame. From a purely practical point of view, a full width plate is best as any floor covering fitted to the threshold plate does not incur excessive waste. Indeed, the occupant may be forced to purchase the next width up in floor covering because of the door ‘recess’.
confused with a threshold bar), a plain tim- ber section, usually hardwood. This may be only the width of the door (irrespective of the actual frame width) or the width of the frame. From a purely practical point of view, a full width plate is best as any floor covering fitted to the threshold plate does not incur excessive waste. Indeed, the occupant may be forced to purchase the next width up in floor covering because of the door ‘recess’.
Fig. 5.31 Partition lintels. Frames f for doors in partitions will normally include a timber threshold plate (not to be
Fig. 5.31 Partition lintels. Frames f for doors in partitions will normally include a timber threshold plate (not to be
Fig. 5.33 Timber frame wall schematic. a source of potential trouble as the building ages.
Fig. 5.33 Timber frame wall schematic. a source of potential trouble as the building ages.
Fig. 5.35 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (1).
Fig. 5.35 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (1).
Plastic sleeve < 50 diameter and light metal or plastic duct > 50 Fig. 5.36 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (2).
Plastic sleeve < 50 diameter and light metal or plastic duct > 50 Fig. 5.36 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (2).
Fig. 5.38 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (4).
Fig. 5.38 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (4).
Fig. 5.37 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (3).
Fig. 5.37 Pipes and ducts through timber frame wall (3).
Fig. 5.39 Window opening in early timber frame constructioin.
Fig. 5.39 Window opening in early timber frame constructioin.
Fig. 5.40 Elevation of early timber panel at window opening. Figure 5.41 shows a more modern approach to timber frame panels. This is a photograph of
Fig. 5.40 Elevation of early timber panel at window opening. Figure 5.41 shows a more modern approach to timber frame panels. This is a photograph of
Fig. 5.44 Flitched beam over large opening. at 600 centres and so the joists are put in at 600 centres and have to be much deeper. A further complication is the need to keep ceil- ing heights down. If wooden lintelling is used for wide openings, the top of the glass in the window would be much too low. This can be
Fig. 5.44 Flitched beam over large opening. at 600 centres and so the joists are put in at 600 centres and have to be much deeper. A further complication is the need to keep ceil- ing heights down. If wooden lintelling is used for wide openings, the top of the glass in the window would be much too low. This can be
Fig. 5.42 Rolled steel channel as lintel in timber panel.
Fig. 5.42 Rolled steel channel as lintel in timber panel.
Fig. 5.41 Modern timber panel at window opening.
Fig. 5.41 Modern timber panel at window opening.
Fig. 5.43 Detail of rolled steel channel as lintel in tim- ber panel.
Fig. 5.43 Detail of rolled steel channel as lintel in tim- ber panel.
port the large squad of carpenters required,
port the large squad of carpenters required,
Prefabrication
Prefabrication
Fig. 6.3 Stick built roof timbers.
Fig. 6.3 Stick built roof timbers.
Fig. 6.4 Pitched roof shapes and types. pression and so much stronger timbers have Figure 6.4 shows some layouts of these tim- bers in (1) in the above list for various forms of roof. For the same timber sizes, roof C is a larger span version of A, while B, the col- lared roof, is common on old properties and farm buildings but is not as strong as roof A. The provision of a tie in roofs A and C pre- vents the rafter ends at the wall head pushing outwards and pushing the wall over. While a collar can also do this, the lower half of the rafters are put into bending as well as com- pression and so much stronger timbers have
Fig. 6.4 Pitched roof shapes and types. pression and so much stronger timbers have Figure 6.4 shows some layouts of these tim- bers in (1) in the above list for various forms of roof. For the same timber sizes, roof C is a larger span version of A, while B, the col- lared roof, is common on old properties and farm buildings but is not as strong as roof A. The provision of a tie in roofs A and C pre- vents the rafter ends at the wall head pushing outwards and pushing the wall over. While a collar can also do this, the lower half of the rafters are put into bending as well as com- pression and so much stronger timbers have
Fig. 6.5 Purlined roof. to be employed for the same span of roof. D is the form of C with a steeper pitch and the possibility of having attic rooms. With the steeper pitch, lighter section rafters, collars and hangers can be used but the ties now dou- ble up as floor joists and so must be heavier and possibly even supported at mid span by a beam or partition. Roof D also shows a de- vice from the early roofs, the sprocket or bell- cast piece. These were separate short lengths of timber attached at the eaves and forming part of the eaves projection. The pitch angle on them was usually less than the main roof, which slowed the run-off of water from the slate or tile into the gutter.
Fig. 6.5 Purlined roof. to be employed for the same span of roof. D is the form of C with a steeper pitch and the possibility of having attic rooms. With the steeper pitch, lighter section rafters, collars and hangers can be used but the ties now dou- ble up as floor joists and so must be heavier and possibly even supported at mid span by a beam or partition. Roof D also shows a de- vice from the early roofs, the sprocket or bell- cast piece. These were separate short lengths of timber attached at the eaves and forming part of the eaves projection. The pitch angle on them was usually less than the main roof, which slowed the run-off of water from the slate or tile into the gutter.
Fig. 6.6 Trusses and purlins. It is possible to do without trusses if the length between the gables is not too long, by using trussed purlins or I beam purlins or box beam purlins. Figure 6.8 shows sections through these, together with the position be- tween the gables that they would take. Note that there will still be a wall plate on top of the wall for all the rafter feet, and a ridge where the pairs of rafters join. A plywood I beam with a depth of approximately 900 and with four 100 x 50 SC3 timbers as flanges, was ca- pable of supporting a tiled roof over a span of 4000. These beams can all be made on site, the fastening being either bolts and connectors
Fig. 6.6 Trusses and purlins. It is possible to do without trusses if the length between the gables is not too long, by using trussed purlins or I beam purlins or box beam purlins. Figure 6.8 shows sections through these, together with the position be- tween the gables that they would take. Note that there will still be a wall plate on top of the wall for all the rafter feet, and a ridge where the pairs of rafters join. A plywood I beam with a depth of approximately 900 and with four 100 x 50 SC3 timbers as flanges, was ca- pable of supporting a tiled roof over a span of 4000. These beams can all be made on site, the fastening being either bolts and connectors
Fig. 6.9 Queen post and mansard trusses.
Fig. 6.9 Queen post and mansard trusses.
Fig. 6.8 Trussed, I beam and box beam purlins.
Fig. 6.8 Trussed, I beam and box beam purlins.
The common rafters are fixed in position starting with a rafter near one gable and at regular centres to the other end of the roof, ignoring the truss positions Purlins and ridge board in position. Both can be joined at the bearing point on the truss with scarfed joints Fig. 6.7 Trusses within the roof outline.
The common rafters are fixed in position starting with a rafter near one gable and at regular centres to the other end of the roof, ignoring the truss positions Purlins and ridge board in position. Both can be joined at the bearing point on the truss with scarfed joints Fig. 6.7 Trusses within the roof outline.
Fig. 6.10 Hammer beam and Belfast trusses.
Fig. 6.10 Hammer beam and Belfast trusses.
Fig. 6.11 TRADA trusses.
Fig. 6.11 TRADA trusses.
Fig. 6.13 Gang nail plate.
Fig. 6.13 Gang nail plate.
Fig. 6.12 Gang nail plate schematic.
Fig. 6.12 Gang nail plate schematic.
Fig. 6.16 Trussed rafters secured to wall plate.
Fig. 6.16 Trussed rafters secured to wall plate.
Fig. 6.15 Wall plate secured to wall head. Figure 6.14 is a photograph of some newly erected trussed rafters on a two-storey house. They are spaced out at 600 centres and are set on and fixed to a wall plate bedded and fastened down to the inner leaf at the wall head. Figure 6.15 shows the wall plate bed- ded down and two of the straps which hold it down can be seen on top of the plate. In Fig- ure 6.14 the ends of these straps can be seen
Fig. 6.15 Wall plate secured to wall head. Figure 6.14 is a photograph of some newly erected trussed rafters on a two-storey house. They are spaced out at 600 centres and are set on and fixed to a wall plate bedded and fastened down to the inner leaf at the wall head. Figure 6.15 shows the wall plate bed- ded down and two of the straps which hold it down can be seen on top of the plate. In Fig- ure 6.14 the ends of these straps can be seen
Fig. 6.14 Trussed rafter roof.
Fig. 6.14 Trussed rafter roof.
Fig. 6.17 View down centre of trussed rafters. Figure 6.18 illustrates the Fink layout and a few other common arrangements. More are shown in Figure 6.19, including the mansard truss and the attic truss. The term panel in relation to these truss shapes refers to the un- supported length of rafter in each. The first, Fink truss is of four panels — each rafter is sup- ported by the struts at the centre of its length, dividing each rafter into two, therefore four panels.
Fig. 6.17 View down centre of trussed rafters. Figure 6.18 illustrates the Fink layout and a few other common arrangements. More are shown in Figure 6.19, including the mansard truss and the attic truss. The term panel in relation to these truss shapes refers to the un- supported length of rafter in each. The first, Fink truss is of four panels — each rafter is sup- ported by the struts at the centre of its length, dividing each rafter into two, therefore four panels.
Fig. 6.19 Various truss shapes (2). Fig. 6.18 Various truss shapes (1).
Fig. 6.19 Various truss shapes (2). Fig. 6.18 Various truss shapes (1).
Fig. 6.20 Wall to roof stability (1).
Fig. 6.20 Wall to roof stability (1).
Fig. 6.22 Roof ladders.
Fig. 6.22 Roof ladders.
Fig. 6.21 Wall to roof stability (2).
Fig. 6.21 Wall to roof stability (2).
Fig. 6.24 Eaves detail.
Fig. 6.24 Eaves detail.
Fig. 6.23 Roof ladder details.
Fig. 6.23 Roof ladder details.
Fig. 6.25 Eaves and verge junction.
Fig. 6.25 Eaves and verge junction.
Fig. 6.27 Roof bracings schematic.
Fig. 6.27 Roof bracings schematic.
Fig. 6.26 Horizontal brace to gable panel detail.
Fig. 6.26 Horizontal brace to gable panel detail.
Fig. 6.28 Breathable plastic underslating felts.
Fig. 6.28 Breathable plastic underslating felts.
Table 6.1 Roof angles and rise in horizontal distance in millimetres. horizontally. That ratio of vertical height to horizontal distance is better known as the nat- ural tangent of the included angle, i.e. be- tween the slope and the horizontal. The natu- ral tangents for the whole degree angles from 1 to 10 are listed in Table 6.1, together with the flat roof slope to give the reader some instant appreciation of what these slopes are really like.
Table 6.1 Roof angles and rise in horizontal distance in millimetres. horizontally. That ratio of vertical height to horizontal distance is better known as the nat- ural tangent of the included angle, i.e. be- tween the slope and the horizontal. The natu- ral tangents for the whole degree angles from 1 to 10 are listed in Table 6.1, together with the flat roof slope to give the reader some instant appreciation of what these slopes are really like.
Fig. 6.30 Flat roof — options for insulation and venti- lation.
Fig. 6.30 Flat roof — options for insulation and venti- lation.
Fig. 6.32 Roof with traditional sarking boards.
Fig. 6.32 Roof with traditional sarking boards.
Fig. 6.33 Stick built roof (2). Temporary bracing was fixed inside the rafters, and sarking boards were nailed to the overall roof surface which was finally cov- ered with underslating felt and concrete in- terlocking tiles. The photograph of the roof with the sarking shows some boards missing. These were put in place as the boarding went on but they were not nailed into place. Once two more boards had been nailed above them these boards were taken out and nailed tem- porarily to the boards below. This gap gave a foothold for the carpenters to step up and complete more of the boarding. Once the last
Fig. 6.33 Stick built roof (2). Temporary bracing was fixed inside the rafters, and sarking boards were nailed to the overall roof surface which was finally cov- ered with underslating felt and concrete in- terlocking tiles. The photograph of the roof with the sarking shows some boards missing. These were put in place as the boarding went on but they were not nailed into place. Once two more boards had been nailed above them these boards were taken out and nailed tem- porarily to the boards below. This gap gave a foothold for the carpenters to step up and complete more of the boarding. Once the last
Fig. 6.31 Stick built roof (1).
Fig. 6.31 Stick built roof (1).
Fig. 6.34 Stick built roof (3). Fig. 6.36 Pole plate (1).
Fig. 6.34 Stick built roof (3). Fig. 6.36 Pole plate (1).
Fig. 6.35 Corbel at eaves verge junction. Fig. 6.37 Pole plate (2). Figure 6.35 is not about the roof so much. It is, after all, a trussed rafter roof, which has been shown earlier. It is more about the wall which sticks out at you in the centre of the
Fig. 6.35 Corbel at eaves verge junction. Fig. 6.37 Pole plate (2). Figure 6.35 is not about the roof so much. It is, after all, a trussed rafter roof, which has been shown earlier. It is more about the wall which sticks out at you in the centre of the
Fig. 6.39 Warm and cold pitched roofs. Pitched roofs can also be built as warm or cold roofs. Figure 6.39 shows schematics for both warm and cold roofs. Cold roof A not the case in a roof where the structure is predominantly of wood and wood products. The ideal must be to keep the wood prod- ucts on the warm side of the insulation and to keep them protected from moisture com- ing through the ceiling finish by placement of a VCL immediately behind the ceiling finish. There has to be a void to carry ventilating air in and moisture laden air out, and whether the roof is a cold roof or a warm roof will deter- mine where that void will be. Looking back at Figure 6.30, situation B is a cold roof so the void is to the outside of the insulating layer. Situations D and E show warm roofs and the void is to the inside of the insulating layer. No matter what else happens in the construction of these roofs, the Regulations require a mini- mum 50 deep gap between the insulation and the deck or ceiling. See ig 1 1 1 ev.
Fig. 6.39 Warm and cold pitched roofs. Pitched roofs can also be built as warm or cold roofs. Figure 6.39 shows schematics for both warm and cold roofs. Cold roof A not the case in a roof where the structure is predominantly of wood and wood products. The ideal must be to keep the wood prod- ucts on the warm side of the insulation and to keep them protected from moisture com- ing through the ceiling finish by placement of a VCL immediately behind the ceiling finish. There has to be a void to carry ventilating air in and moisture laden air out, and whether the roof is a cold roof or a warm roof will deter- mine where that void will be. Looking back at Figure 6.30, situation B is a cold roof so the void is to the outside of the insulating layer. Situations D and E show warm roofs and the void is to the inside of the insulating layer. No matter what else happens in the construction of these roofs, the Regulations require a mini- mum 50 deep gap between the insulation and the deck or ceiling. See ig 1 1 1 ev.
Fig. 6.38 Roof details — corbel and pole plates. a key between the rafter feet and the ends of the tie and prevents the rafter feet sliding off.
Fig. 6.38 Roof details — corbel and pole plates. a key between the rafter feet and the ends of the tie and prevents the rafter feet sliding off.
Fig. 6.40 Preformed plastic foam insulation for a warm roof.
Fig. 6.40 Preformed plastic foam insulation for a warm roof.
Table 7.1 Tiles and slates — materials, fixing and laying method.
Table 7.1 Tiles and slates — materials, fixing and laying method.
Fig. 7.1 Houses ready for roof tiles.
Fig. 7.1 Houses ready for roof tiles.
Fig. 7.3 Double lap roof unit — showing lap with al- ternate courses.
Fig. 7.3 Double lap roof unit — showing lap with al- ternate courses.
Fig. 7.2 Double lap roof unit — method of setting out.
Fig. 7.2 Double lap roof unit — method of setting out.
Fig. 7.4 Eaves tile ‘cocking up’. ness, it is also unsightly and we will return to this aspect when we examine single lap fixing.
Fig. 7.4 Eaves tile ‘cocking up’. ness, it is also unsightly and we will return to this aspect when we examine single lap fixing.
Fig. 7.6 Underside of an interlocking tile. Figure 7.7 is a schematic view of the ridges and rebate on the side of these tiles. This is what stops the water passing down between the tiles onto the surface below. shows the tile top at the top. One feature can be seen that is common to all man-made tiles — nibs which hook over the tile batten and prevent the tile sliding down the roof. There are ridges running horizontally across the back of the tile. These are water stops and prevent water being blown up under the tile from the surface of the one below.
Fig. 7.6 Underside of an interlocking tile. Figure 7.7 is a schematic view of the ridges and rebate on the side of these tiles. This is what stops the water passing down between the tiles onto the surface below. shows the tile top at the top. One feature can be seen that is common to all man-made tiles — nibs which hook over the tile batten and prevent the tile sliding down the roof. There are ridges running horizontally across the back of the tile. These are water stops and prevent water being blown up under the tile from the surface of the one below.
Fig. 7.5 Interlocking tiles on battens and counter battens.
Fig. 7.5 Interlocking tiles on battens and counter battens.
Fig. 7.7 Schematic of side interlocking joint. but a reasonable guide would be to nail the first three courses at the eaves, the last three courses at the ridge and three tiles in at every verge or abutment. In addition, every third or fourth course has to be nailed for its com- plete length. It used to be normal for all tiles supplied to have two nail holes preformed in their head. Many tiles are now made without holes as the manufacturers wish to have their tiles fixed with their own patent clips. See the manufacturers’ websites.
Fig. 7.7 Schematic of side interlocking joint. but a reasonable guide would be to nail the first three courses at the eaves, the last three courses at the ridge and three tiles in at every verge or abutment. In addition, every third or fourth course has to be nailed for its com- plete length. It used to be normal for all tiles supplied to have two nail holes preformed in their head. Many tiles are now made without holes as the manufacturers wish to have their tiles fixed with their own patent clips. See the manufacturers’ websites.
Fig. 7.8 Spanish and Roman over and under tiles. These are frequently called over and under tiles due to the shapes used and the manner of laying them. The shapes are illustrated in Figure 7.8.
Fig. 7.8 Spanish and Roman over and under tiles. These are frequently called over and under tiles due to the shapes used and the manner of laying them. The shapes are illustrated in Figure 7.8.
the outriggers and in a groove in the back of the barge board — sometimes referred to as a berge board. A further timber plate is cut to fit the underside of the projection of the roof- ing tiles — called scribing — and then nailed to the barge board with a mastic fillet on top. As it is fixed in position, the roofing membrane should be brought out and stuck between the plate and the tiles. verge; the idea of bedding the verge in cement mortar is not really feasible. It was generally only done when the projection was about 75 to 100 and an undercloak of asbestos cement sheet or of plain tiles was bedded on top of the masonry and then the roof tiles bedded on top of that. Here there is a wide projection supported on short lengths of timber — outrig- gers — nailed to the side of the first/last rafter. There is a soffit plate and barge board, the equivalent of the eaves fascia. The soffit plate is fixed to a batten nailed to the underside of
the outriggers and in a groove in the back of the barge board — sometimes referred to as a berge board. A further timber plate is cut to fit the underside of the projection of the roof- ing tiles — called scribing — and then nailed to the barge board with a mastic fillet on top. As it is fixed in position, the roofing membrane should be brought out and stuck between the plate and the tiles. verge; the idea of bedding the verge in cement mortar is not really feasible. It was generally only done when the projection was about 75 to 100 and an undercloak of asbestos cement sheet or of plain tiles was bedded on top of the masonry and then the roof tiles bedded on top of that. Here there is a wide projection supported on short lengths of timber — outrig- gers — nailed to the side of the first/last rafter. There is a soffit plate and barge board, the equivalent of the eaves fascia. The soffit plate is fixed to a batten nailed to the underside of
Tiles, battens, counterbattens and roofing membrane as Figure 7.9
Tiles, battens, counterbattens and roofing membrane as Figure 7.9
Fig. 7.12 Verge tiled.
Fig. 7.12 Verge tiled.
Fig. 7.13 Abutment detail.
Fig. 7.13 Abutment detail.
Fig. 7.11 Verge detail.
Fig. 7.11 Verge detail.
Table 8.1 Comparative costing of wall and window.
Table 8.1 Comparative costing of wall and window.
preserve the timber in the joint from rotting. The lead paint dried out fairly rapidly and the timber still rotted. Doors with bare joints allow the wood to swell and generally give a watertight joint — and still rot. Timber can now be treated to prevent rot but the timber will still take up moisture and swell to keep joints tight.
preserve the timber in the joint from rotting. The lead paint dried out fairly rapidly and the timber still rotted. Doors with bare joints allow the wood to swell and generally give a watertight joint — and still rot. Timber can now be treated to prevent rot but the timber will still take up moisture and swell to keep joints tight.
Note that the position of the brace deter- mines which is the lock stile and which the hinge stile. For a door of the opposite hand, the brace must be fitted the other way round. Most types of lock or latch can be fitted to this door but the mortice and tenoned joint of the lock rail should be avoided when fitting any lock or latch, but particularly mortice locks. offer little security and can only be used as pass doors’. Solid cores make the heaviest doors, which do offer security and are used for external doors if the glues used are weath- erproof.
Note that the position of the brace deter- mines which is the lock stile and which the hinge stile. For a door of the opposite hand, the brace must be fitted the other way round. Most types of lock or latch can be fitted to this door but the mortice and tenoned joint of the lock rail should be avoided when fitting any lock or latch, but particularly mortice locks. offer little security and can only be used as pass doors’. Solid cores make the heaviest doors, which do offer security and are used for external doors if the glues used are weath- erproof.
Fig. 8.3 Flush panel door.
Fig. 8.3 Flush panel door.
Note: Panels do not extend to bottom of groove. This allows panel to expand/contract independently of the frame
Note: Panels do not extend to bottom of groove. This allows panel to expand/contract independently of the frame
Fig. 8.6 Pressed hardboard mock panel doors.
Fig. 8.6 Pressed hardboard mock panel doors.
Fig. 8.7 15 pane glazed door. The astragals are made with double ovolo mouldings and double rebates as shown. The ends of the astragals are reduced to rectangu- lar section tenons and let into mortices cut into the stiles and rails. The mouldings on the as- tragals match those on the stiles and rails and these are mitred at the morticed and tenoned joints. Junctions of astragals are generally half checked, with the mouldings mitred. T7. ~—. gy ww et. fg a:
Fig. 8.7 15 pane glazed door. The astragals are made with double ovolo mouldings and double rebates as shown. The ends of the astragals are reduced to rectangu- lar section tenons and let into mortices cut into the stiles and rails. The mouldings on the as- tragals match those on the stiles and rails and these are mitred at the morticed and tenoned joints. Junctions of astragals are generally half checked, with the mouldings mitred. T7. ~—. gy ww et. fg a:
Fig. 8.8 Door frame construction. Door frames rebated to provide a stop for the door are generally associated with good quality work but are more frequently used for external doors where the frame is fixed according to English practice. wall finish and the complete door frame. - Figure 8.9 illustrates the use of a full width casing and stop at an internal door, while Fig- ure 8.10 is a photograph of the opposite side of that door with a more decorative architrave which covers the joint of the frame with the wall finish and the complete door frame.
Fig. 8.8 Door frame construction. Door frames rebated to provide a stop for the door are generally associated with good quality work but are more frequently used for external doors where the frame is fixed according to English practice. wall finish and the complete door frame. - Figure 8.9 illustrates the use of a full width casing and stop at an internal door, while Fig- ure 8.10 is a photograph of the opposite side of that door with a more decorative architrave which covers the joint of the frame with the wall finish and the complete door frame.
Fig. 8.10 A hung door.
Fig. 8.10 A hung door.
Fig. 8.11 Fixing door frame using plugs or billgates.
Fig. 8.11 Fixing door frame using plugs or billgates.
Bottom hinge with whole of hinge pin exposed
Bottom hinge with whole of hinge pin exposed
Fig. 8.13 Over-rebated door in frame. and frame. Gaps between door and threshold should however be kept down to 3. Smoke seals might have to be fitted in the bottom edge of the door.
Fig. 8.13 Over-rebated door in frame. and frame. Gaps between door and threshold should however be kept down to 3. Smoke seals might have to be fitted in the bottom edge of the door.
Glazing So far the discussion has centred on doors and door frames, but the Standard goes on to dis- cuss glazed portions of the door and glazed sidelights and so on — the whole thing be- coming quite complex. In summary, glazing in a fire door needs a lot of care and attention. When a hole is cut into a door the core is ex- posed and this core edge requires protection from the effects of fire. Also, core materials do not often give ideal conditions for mechani- cal fixing — nails and screws — so that bead style solutions to fixing glass in an opening are doomed to fail. There are proprietary systems of high resistance rated materials which can be used to hold glass in such openings, and they
Glazing So far the discussion has centred on doors and door frames, but the Standard goes on to dis- cuss glazed portions of the door and glazed sidelights and so on — the whole thing be- coming quite complex. In summary, glazing in a fire door needs a lot of care and attention. When a hole is cut into a door the core is ex- posed and this core edge requires protection from the effects of fire. Also, core materials do not often give ideal conditions for mechani- cal fixing — nails and screws — so that bead style solutions to fixing glass in an opening are doomed to fail. There are proprietary systems of high resistance rated materials which can be used to hold glass in such openings, and they
Fig. 8.16 More hinges.
Fig. 8.16 More hinges.
Fig. 8.17 Some locks and latches.
Fig. 8.17 Some locks and latches.
Fig. 8.18 An old rim lock.
Fig. 8.18 An old rim lock.
Fig. 8.19 The escutcheon plate for the lock in Figure 8.18.
Fig. 8.19 The escutcheon plate for the lock in Figure 8.18.
Fig. 8.20 Tower and slip bolts.
Fig. 8.20 Tower and slip bolts.
Fig. 8.23 Knobs and levers. Materials include cast iron, brasses, stain- less steel, wrought iron, aluminium, plastics, wood and porcelain. Finishes include enam- els or japanning (applied to cast iron and wrought iron), BMA (bronze metal antique — applied to brass ironmongery), SAA (satin an- odised aluminium) and plain old-fashioned polishing and lacquering (applied to brass ironmongery).
Fig. 8.23 Knobs and levers. Materials include cast iron, brasses, stain- less steel, wrought iron, aluminium, plastics, wood and porcelain. Finishes include enam- els or japanning (applied to cast iron and wrought iron), BMA (bronze metal antique — applied to brass ironmongery), SAA (satin an- odised aluminium) and plain old-fashioned polishing and lacquering (applied to brass ironmongery).
Fig. 8.22 Threshold / weather bar schematic.
Fig. 8.22 Threshold / weather bar schematic.
Fig. 9.1 Typical layouts of fixed and opening sashes for casement windows.
Fig. 9.1 Typical layouts of fixed and opening sashes for casement windows.
Fig. 9.3 Ordinary and deep rebates in casement sashes.
Fig. 9.3 Ordinary and deep rebates in casement sashes.
Section through jambs and mullion of window Fig. 9.2 Typical casement window sections.
Section through jambs and mullion of window Fig. 9.2 Typical casement window sections.
Fig. 9.4 Brush, wipe and compression seals.
Fig. 9.4 Brush, wipe and compression seals.
Fig. 9.6 Building in a casement window.
Fig. 9.6 Building in a casement window.
Fig. 9.9 Finger joints in a casement. The sections of all the members of a casement have been shown in the figures above, but what has not been covered is how they are joined together. Many casements in the past have had all the joints carried out as mor- tice and tenon joints with the rounded and splayed edges mitred. With modern machin- ery cutting mating faces and the joints them- selves, variations of the finger joint are now commonplace and gluing is the favoured ‘fas- tener’. Figure 9.9 shows a typical joint of two casement sections. The joint of jambs to sill of the frame can be plain housings, glued and nailed from the back, or they can be finger jointed but the sill is not cut to its full depth.
Fig. 9.9 Finger joints in a casement. The sections of all the members of a casement have been shown in the figures above, but what has not been covered is how they are joined together. Many casements in the past have had all the joints carried out as mor- tice and tenon joints with the rounded and splayed edges mitred. With modern machin- ery cutting mating faces and the joints them- selves, variations of the finger joint are now commonplace and gluing is the favoured ‘fas- tener’. Figure 9.9 shows a typical joint of two casement sections. The joint of jambs to sill of the frame can be plain housings, glued and nailed from the back, or they can be finger jointed but the sill is not cut to its full depth.
Fig. 9.7 Wedging in a window.
Fig. 9.7 Wedging in a window.
Fig. 9.8 Plugging in and framing anchors. Joining the frame and casement members The sections of all the members of a casement
Fig. 9.8 Plugging in and framing anchors. Joining the frame and casement members The sections of all the members of a casement
Fig. 9.11 Casement sill and frame stile joint.
Fig. 9.11 Casement sill and frame stile joint.
Fig. 9.12 Casement head and frame stile joint.
Fig. 9.12 Casement head and frame stile joint.
Fig. 9.10 Typical casement window.
Fig. 9.10 Typical casement window.
Fig. 9.13 Mullion and frame sill joint.
Fig. 9.13 Mullion and frame sill joint.
Fig. 9.14 Casement joint. right-hand side of the mullion is a soft plas- tic setting block for the double glazed units which will be used. Finally, Figure 9.14 is a pic- ture of the corner of the casement showing a very deep rebate, and it is on the outside. The whole window was set up for glazing with a sealed unit in beads from the outside. The householder will get a window which has the security value of a sealed double glazed unit completely negated by having it glazed from the outside.
Fig. 9.14 Casement joint. right-hand side of the mullion is a soft plas- tic setting block for the double glazed units which will be used. Finally, Figure 9.14 is a pic- ture of the corner of the casement showing a very deep rebate, and it is on the outside. The whole window was set up for glazing with a sealed unit in beads from the outside. The householder will get a window which has the security value of a sealed double glazed unit completely negated by having it glazed from the outside.
Fig. 9.15 Schematic of sashes in sash and case win- dow.
Fig. 9.15 Schematic of sashes in sash and case win- dow.
Fig. 9.16 Outline of case head and stiles.
Fig. 9.16 Outline of case head and stiles.
Fig. 9.17 Outline of case sill and sash sill in relation to masonry.
Fig. 9.17 Outline of case sill and sash sill in relation to masonry.
Fig. 9.18 Detail of case head and stile in splayed, checked reveal.
Fig. 9.18 Detail of case head and stile in splayed, checked reveal.
Fig. 9.19 Alternative sill build ups.
Fig. 9.19 Alternative sill build ups.
Fig. 9.20 Duplex hinges and operating schematic.
Fig. 9.20 Duplex hinges and operating schematic.
Fixing of the balance to the sash is done with a metal bracket which allows the balance to be released and refastened to the sash easily and effectively. The balances are manufac- tured with a range of spring strengths which accommodate all but the largest sashes. The critical factor in many instances is the use of double or triple glazing.
Fixing of the balance to the sash is done with a metal bracket which allows the balance to be released and refastened to the sash easily and effectively. The balances are manufac- tured with a range of spring strengths which accommodate all but the largest sashes. The critical factor in many instances is the use of double or triple glazing.
Fig. 9.22 Spring balances. The balance has a hole for an ordinary wood screw fixing to the stile, and the spiral has a
Fig. 9.22 Spring balances. The balance has a hole for an ordinary wood screw fixing to the stile, and the spiral has a
Fig. 9.24 General view of sash and case window.
Fig. 9.24 General view of sash and case window.
Fig. 9.23 Hinge down sashes with spring balances.
Fig. 9.23 Hinge down sashes with spring balances.
Fig. 9.25 Sash pulleys and cord grip.
Fig. 9.25 Sash pulleys and cord grip.
Fig. 9.27 Pocket in stile open.
Fig. 9.27 Pocket in stile open.
Fig. 9.26 Batten rod screws. taken from inside a more modern window and shows two pulleys in the case backplate. The left-hand cord runs through a cord grip which allows the user to pull the cord and raise the sash weight, allowing the sash to be released from the cords. Figure 9.26 shows the batten rod removed, and the captive screws which hold it in position can be clearly seen in the rod and the plate they screw into in the back- plate. The parting bead is still in position. Fig- ure 9.27 shows the parting bead removed and the pocket — the access plate to the weights — which is cut into the backplate. Note how the pocket cover is cut in the groove for the parting bead. When the parting bead is fit- ted, this together with the lower sash keeps the cover in place. Maintenance work can be carried out such as replacing cords, adding make-weights, shortening off stretched cords, etc. Figure 9.28 is a picture of the joint of the sash stile and sash sill. The joint is a mortice and tenon joint with a dowel, which can be seen proud of the face under the paint. Fig- ure 9.29 is the same joint viewed from the side, and the end of the tenon can be seen with the wedges either side to hold it firmly in place. Figure 9.30 is the joint of sash stile to meeting
Fig. 9.26 Batten rod screws. taken from inside a more modern window and shows two pulleys in the case backplate. The left-hand cord runs through a cord grip which allows the user to pull the cord and raise the sash weight, allowing the sash to be released from the cords. Figure 9.26 shows the batten rod removed, and the captive screws which hold it in position can be clearly seen in the rod and the plate they screw into in the back- plate. The parting bead is still in position. Fig- ure 9.27 shows the parting bead removed and the pocket — the access plate to the weights — which is cut into the backplate. Note how the pocket cover is cut in the groove for the parting bead. When the parting bead is fit- ted, this together with the lower sash keeps the cover in place. Maintenance work can be carried out such as replacing cords, adding make-weights, shortening off stretched cords, etc. Figure 9.28 is a picture of the joint of the sash stile and sash sill. The joint is a mortice and tenon joint with a dowel, which can be seen proud of the face under the paint. Fig- ure 9.29 is the same joint viewed from the side, and the end of the tenon can be seen with the wedges either side to hold it firmly in place. Figure 9.30 is the joint of sash stile to meeting
Fig. 9.28 Sash sill to stile junction (1).
Fig. 9.28 Sash sill to stile junction (1).
Fig. 9.29 Sash sill to stile junction (2).
Fig. 9.29 Sash sill to stile junction (2).
Fig. 9.30 Meeting rail to stile junction.
Fig. 9.30 Meeting rail to stile junction.
Fig. 9.31 Rebate nomenclature in glazing.
Fig. 9.31 Rebate nomenclature in glazing.
Fig. 9.32 Glazing in compound.
Fig. 9.32 Glazing in compound.
Fig. 10.1 Illustration of some definitions associated with stairs. Landings
Fig. 10.1 Illustration of some definitions associated with stairs. Landings
Fig. 10.2 Flights and landings. Landings may be quarter landings or half landings (see Figure 10.2). The Regulations only allow 16 steps maximum in any flight. Should a stair be in excess of 16 steps, it must be broken into two or more flights with run- ning landings in between. The length of a run- ning landing must be at least the same as the width of the flight.
Fig. 10.2 Flights and landings. Landings may be quarter landings or half landings (see Figure 10.2). The Regulations only allow 16 steps maximum in any flight. Should a stair be in excess of 16 steps, it must be broken into two or more flights with run- ning landings in between. The length of a run- ning landing must be at least the same as the width of the flight.
Fig. 10.3 Open cut string stair being installed. Stairs may be built into the staircase in such a way that the strings may touch the walls on both sides, on one side, or be completely unattached. Strings against the wall are called wall strings; strings not touching the wall are free-standing strings. Wall strings can be at- tached to the wall over their length and so can be manufactured from thinner timber. Free standing strings can be shaped so that the end of each step projects over the string. Such strings are termed open cut strings and they can be done in many different ornamental styles. Figure 10.3 is a photograph of an open cut string stair being fixed into position. Note the projection of the tread over the string and the curved plate mitred to the riser. See also Figure 10.4.
Fig. 10.3 Open cut string stair being installed. Stairs may be built into the staircase in such a way that the strings may touch the walls on both sides, on one side, or be completely unattached. Strings against the wall are called wall strings; strings not touching the wall are free-standing strings. Wall strings can be at- tached to the wall over their length and so can be manufactured from thinner timber. Free standing strings can be shaped so that the end of each step projects over the string. Such strings are termed open cut strings and they can be done in many different ornamental styles. Figure 10.3 is a photograph of an open cut string stair being fixed into position. Note the projection of the tread over the string and the curved plate mitred to the riser. See also Figure 10.4.
Fig. 10.4 Open cut string details. Balustrades With a free-standing string a rail is required to ensure the safety of the users. This is called a balustrade and comprises a handrail supported on balusters, all exposed and fre- quently elaborately turned on a lathe. Alter- natively, a frame may be erected on the string and panels placed in the frame, or itis boarded over with sheet material, matchboarding, etc.
Fig. 10.4 Open cut string details. Balustrades With a free-standing string a rail is required to ensure the safety of the users. This is called a balustrade and comprises a handrail supported on balusters, all exposed and fre- quently elaborately turned on a lathe. Alter- natively, a frame may be erected on the string and panels placed in the frame, or itis boarded over with sheet material, matchboarding, etc.
Fig. 10.5 Balustrade, newels, total rise and total going.
Fig. 10.5 Balustrade, newels, total rise and total going.
Fig. 10.6 Balustrade detail, newel fixing detail. Two more measurements are the going and the rise, both of individual steps and of the complete flight, the latter being frequently
Fig. 10.6 Balustrade detail, newel fixing detail. Two more measurements are the going and the rise, both of individual steps and of the complete flight, the latter being frequently
Fig. 10.8 Ends of stair stringers. long wedges are driven into the remainder of the groove, which forces the tread and riser of each step in turn to close up to the upper edge of the groove, and also puts the glue line under pressure. This is all done with the stair in the position shown in the photograph.
Fig. 10.8 Ends of stair stringers. long wedges are driven into the remainder of the groove, which forces the tread and riser of each step in turn to close up to the upper edge of the groove, and also puts the glue line under pressure. This is all done with the stair in the position shown in the photograph.
Fig. 10.7 Step to stringer joint. On Figure 10.7 the joint of steps to stringer is illustrated. Remember that a step comprises a tread and the riser immediately below it, glued and screwed together with triangular blockings. One can see the groove which has been cut in the inside face of the string and into which each step is placed — with glue. Once all the steps are in place they are joined together by nailing the riser of the step to the back of the tread below — with more glue. Then
Fig. 10.7 Step to stringer joint. On Figure 10.7 the joint of steps to stringer is illustrated. Remember that a step comprises a tread and the riser immediately below it, glued and screwed together with triangular blockings. One can see the groove which has been cut in the inside face of the string and into which each step is placed — with glue. Once all the steps are in place they are joined together by nailing the riser of the step to the back of the tread below — with more glue. Then
Fig. 10.9 Winders and rough carriage.
Fig. 10.9 Winders and rough carriage.
Holes are not allowed in mutual walls such as we are considering here. This of course includes the incidental formation of holes due to incomplete bedding of masonry. Beds and perpends must be fully filled. Holes and cracks may also form when building materi- als or components shrink and crack. Where there is a danger that this might happen, the use of a flexible filling compound might be considered appropriate, and where the detail is combined with a need for fire resistance, in- tumescent compounds would be even better. Fire resistance
Holes are not allowed in mutual walls such as we are considering here. This of course includes the incidental formation of holes due to incomplete bedding of masonry. Beds and perpends must be fully filled. Holes and cracks may also form when building materi- als or components shrink and crack. Where there is a danger that this might happen, the use of a flexible filling compound might be considered appropriate, and where the detail is combined with a need for fire resistance, in- tumescent compounds would be even better. Fire resistance
Table 12.1 Materials used for pipe. *When used for central heating pipework, ordinary plastics pipe will allow oxygen to diffuse in through the pipe wall. A special grade of pipe is manufactured with an oxygen barrier in the wall of the pipe.
Table 12.1 Materials used for pipe. *When used for central heating pipework, ordinary plastics pipe will allow oxygen to diffuse in through the pipe wall. A special grade of pipe is manufactured with an oxygen barrier in the wall of the pipe.
Fig. 12.1 Compression fitting on copper and poly- butylene piping. The non-manipulative compression fittings used on plastics waste pipe (they can also be used on copper pipe of appropriate diameter) follow the same general design principles but without the need to withstand more than a modest pressure. The wedge-shaped section design of the sealing ring is only about ob- taining a seal and a modest grip on the pipe. A liner is not required as the plastics of the pipe is generally quite rigid.
Fig. 12.1 Compression fitting on copper and poly- butylene piping. The non-manipulative compression fittings used on plastics waste pipe (they can also be used on copper pipe of appropriate diameter) follow the same general design principles but without the need to withstand more than a modest pressure. The wedge-shaped section design of the sealing ring is only about ob- taining a seal and a modest grip on the pipe. A liner is not required as the plastics of the pipe is generally quite rigid.
Fig. 12.2 Compression fitting on waste disposal pipe.
Fig. 12.2 Compression fitting on waste disposal pipe.
Fig. 12.5 Push fit fittings for hot and cold supply pipework.
Fig. 12.5 Push fit fittings for hot and cold supply pipework.
Fig. 12.4 Push fit fitting for waste disposal pipe. The second type of joint has a sealing ring squeezed between the pipe and the fitting, but also a grab ring which resists any tendency for the joint to pull apart. There is no such tendency with disposal pipework but there is with any pressurised system such as hot and cold water supply and central heating. Push fit joints are not used for gas supply pipework.
Fig. 12.4 Push fit fitting for waste disposal pipe. The second type of joint has a sealing ring squeezed between the pipe and the fitting, but also a grab ring which resists any tendency for the joint to pull apart. There is no such tendency with disposal pipework but there is with any pressurised system such as hot and cold water supply and central heating. Push fit joints are not used for gas supply pipework.
Fig. 12.3 Capillary fitting joining two lengths of pipe.
Fig. 12.3 Capillary fitting joining two lengths of pipe.
Fig. 12.6 Solvent weld fitting for disposal piping.
Fig. 12.6 Solvent weld fitting for disposal piping.
Fig. 12.9 Selection of bends, elbows, straight cou- plings and Ts all with compression joints.
Fig. 12.9 Selection of bends, elbows, straight cou- plings and Ts all with compression joints.
Fig. 12.7 Female iron to copper fitting connection.
Fig. 12.7 Female iron to copper fitting connection.
Fig. 12.8 Male iron to copper connection with a back nut.
Fig. 12.8 Male iron to copper connection with a back nut.
Fig. 12.10 Selection of straight and bent capillary cou- plings and Ts.
Fig. 12.10 Selection of straight and bent capillary cou- plings and Ts.
Fig. 12.12 Selection of push fit couplings for hot and cold water pipework.
Fig. 12.12 Selection of push fit couplings for hot and cold water pipework.
Fig. 12.13 Selection of compression couplings for disposal pipework.
Fig. 12.13 Selection of compression couplings for disposal pipework.
Fig. 12.11 Selection of bent and straight connections, all with compression joints. rigure 12.10 SNOWS a selection OF COMpres- sion couplings for disposal pipework. From the left and clockwise there is an elbow, a
Fig. 12.11 Selection of bent and straight connections, all with compression joints. rigure 12.10 SNOWS a selection OF COMpres- sion couplings for disposal pipework. From the left and clockwise there is an elbow, a
Table 12.2 Valves and cocks, nomenclature. or elbow or even a T. Valves can also be ob- tained with flanges for fixing to some type of background. Depending on the manufacturer, brass and DZR versions of the valves are made, and there can be one or both ends with male or fe- male threads. So one could have one end for copper and one male or female end, or both male ends or both female ends. To the best of the author’s knowledge no-one has made a valve with one male and one female end. Hav- ing valves with single male or female ends means that a connection can be made to an ap- pliance and then the pipe connected directly to the valve. i amare 1 1 ell a | ye
Table 12.2 Valves and cocks, nomenclature. or elbow or even a T. Valves can also be ob- tained with flanges for fixing to some type of background. Depending on the manufacturer, brass and DZR versions of the valves are made, and there can be one or both ends with male or fe- male threads. So one could have one end for copper and one male or female end, or both male ends or both female ends. To the best of the author’s knowledge no-one has made a valve with one male and one female end. Hav- ing valves with single male or female ends means that a connection can be made to an ap- pliance and then the pipe connected directly to the valve. i amare 1 1 ell a | ye
Fig. 12.14 Selection of solvent weld couplings for disposal pipework. www.hepworthplumbing.co.uk www.polypipe.com/bp www peglerhattersley.com
Fig. 12.14 Selection of solvent weld couplings for disposal pipework. www.hepworthplumbing.co.uk www.polypipe.com/bp www peglerhattersley.com
Fig. 12.18 A pair of float valves.
Fig. 12.18 A pair of float valves.
Fig. 12.19 Exploded version of the Portsmouth pat- tern valve.
Fig. 12.19 Exploded version of the Portsmouth pat- tern valve.
Fig. 12.17 A plug cock with compression tails for copper. Figure 12.19 shows an exploded version of the Portsmouth pattern valve. Across the bot- tom is the lever arm with the float and at the other end the hole for the pivot pin and the ear- like appendages which engage in a groove in the plunger. Above, from left to right, a pair of back nuts and a washer to secure the valve in the tank or cistern; the male iron spigot with the nut which attaches it to the valve body; the valve body with the nozzle and the hole for the pivot pin; below the body, the pivot pin — a brass split pin; the plunger which has a soft washer in the end and a groove along the side for the ears on the lever arm; a cap to keep the plunger in the body. What cannot be
Fig. 12.17 A plug cock with compression tails for copper. Figure 12.19 shows an exploded version of the Portsmouth pattern valve. Across the bot- tom is the lever arm with the float and at the other end the hole for the pivot pin and the ear- like appendages which engage in a groove in the plunger. Above, from left to right, a pair of back nuts and a washer to secure the valve in the tank or cistern; the male iron spigot with the nut which attaches it to the valve body; the valve body with the nozzle and the hole for the pivot pin; below the body, the pivot pin — a brass split pin; the plunger which has a soft washer in the end and a groove along the side for the ears on the lever arm; a cap to keep the plunger in the body. What cannot be
Fig. 12.16 Selection of valves.
Fig. 12.16 Selection of valves.
*A pipe sleeve is a cutting of pipe built into a masonry wall through which a service pipe is passed. It protects the service pipe and allows it to expand and contract or move lengthwise in the sleeve without damage to itself or the wall. It always bridges cavities in walls and so prevents pipe contents from spilling into the cavity in the event of a leak. A pipe sleeve is mandatory for gas service pipes passing through a cavity or any other walls. There should neve be any pipe joints secreted in a pipe sleeve. Table 12.3 Service and pipe used.
*A pipe sleeve is a cutting of pipe built into a masonry wall through which a service pipe is passed. It protects the service pipe and allows it to expand and contract or move lengthwise in the sleeve without damage to itself or the wall. It always bridges cavities in walls and so prevents pipe contents from spilling into the cavity in the event of a leak. A pipe sleeve is mandatory for gas service pipes passing through a cavity or any other walls. There should neve be any pipe joints secreted in a pipe sleeve. Table 12.3 Service and pipe used.
Fig. 12.21 Schematic of the cold water supply pipework.
Fig. 12.21 Schematic of the cold water supply pipework.
Fig. 12.20 Identification of the appliances and equip- ment to be connected up. through a tee piece at the bottom of the cylin- der, the branch being a male iron spigot (tees like this are often referred to as boiler tees as that is where they were most commonly fit- ted). This branch is connected to the cylinder, and the other end of the tee connects to a scour valve (usually a plug cock) with a pipe go- ing to the outside of the building. Opening the scour valve empties the hot water system completely above the level of the scour valve. If the valve on the cold feed is left open, the cold water cistern is emptied.
Fig. 12.20 Identification of the appliances and equip- ment to be connected up. through a tee piece at the bottom of the cylin- der, the branch being a male iron spigot (tees like this are often referred to as boiler tees as that is where they were most commonly fit- ted). This branch is connected to the cylinder, and the other end of the tee connects to a scour valve (usually a plug cock) with a pipe go- ing to the outside of the building. Opening the scour valve empties the hot water system completely above the level of the scour valve. If the valve on the cold feed is left open, the cold water cistern is emptied.
Fig. 12.22 Schematic of the hot water supply pipework.
Fig. 12.22 Schematic of the hot water supply pipework.
Fig. 12.23 Soil, waste and ventilation pipework. Figure 12.23 shows a schematic for the appli- ances already piped up for water supply. Note
Fig. 12.23 Soil, waste and ventilation pipework. Figure 12.23 shows a schematic for the appli- ances already piped up for water supply. Note
Fig. 12.25 Cast iron toby cover in the street.
Fig. 12.25 Cast iron toby cover in the street.
Fig. 12.26 Cold water storage cistern and linked cisterns. Hot water storage cylinders have been made from galvanised steel and from polypropy- lene but by far the most common material is copper. HW cylinders are made in capacities from around 90 to 500 litres, and their shape
Fig. 12.26 Cold water storage cistern and linked cisterns. Hot water storage cylinders have been made from galvanised steel and from polypropy- lene but by far the most common material is copper. HW cylinders are made in capacities from around 90 to 500 litres, and their shape
Fig. 12.28 An indirect HW storage cylinder with fac- tory applied insulation.
Fig. 12.28 An indirect HW storage cylinder with fac- tory applied insulation.
Fig. 12.27 A direct HW storage cylinder connected to a back boiler.
Fig. 12.27 A direct HW storage cylinder connected to a back boiler.
Fig. 12.30 A single feed, indirect, HW storage cylinder.
Fig. 12.30 A single feed, indirect, HW storage cylinder.
Fig. 12.29 A double feed, indirect, HW storage cylinder.
Fig. 12.29 A double feed, indirect, HW storage cylinder.
Fig. 12.32 A pressurised central heating system — gas or liquid fuelled.
Fig. 12.32 A pressurised central heating system — gas or liquid fuelled.
Fig. 12.33 The pressure vessel and valve arrange- ments of a pressurised central heating system.
Fig. 12.33 The pressure vessel and valve arrange- ments of a pressurised central heating system.
Fig. 12.31 An open vented central heating system — gas or liquid fuelled.
Fig. 12.31 An open vented central heating system — gas or liquid fuelled.
Note: The mains water pipe is used to fill the heating system but cannot be permanently connected to the system in case contamination of the water supply takes place. Flexible hose is used for filling and topping up but must be disconnected and the caps replaced on the pipe ends. The one-way valve prevents boiler water flowing back into mains if pressure is less in the main
Note: The mains water pipe is used to fill the heating system but cannot be permanently connected to the system in case contamination of the water supply takes place. Flexible hose is used for filling and topping up but must be disconnected and the caps replaced on the pipe ends. The one-way valve prevents boiler water flowing back into mains if pressure is less in the main
Fig. 12.35 A typical emitter. They are common as kitchen heaters where they are designed to sit behind the kicking board under fitted kitchen units. At the tem- peratures at which radiators operate there is not a lot of radiant heat available. One has to be within 600 of the panel to feel anything in most installations, and where there are chil- dren or old people the water temperature from the boiler has to be kept low enough to avoid burning vulnerable people should they touch the emitter surface. Figure 12.35 shows a typ- ical emitter and Figure 12.36 shows a typical thermostatic radiator valve (TRV).
Fig. 12.35 A typical emitter. They are common as kitchen heaters where they are designed to sit behind the kicking board under fitted kitchen units. At the tem- peratures at which radiators operate there is not a lot of radiant heat available. One has to be within 600 of the panel to feel anything in most installations, and where there are chil- dren or old people the water temperature from the boiler has to be kept low enough to avoid burning vulnerable people should they touch the emitter surface. Figure 12.35 shows a typ- ical emitter and Figure 12.36 shows a typical thermostatic radiator valve (TRV).
Fig. 12.36 A thermostatic radiator value (TRV). The term ‘appliances’ covers things such as sinks, wash hand basins, baths, showers and
Fig. 12.36 A thermostatic radiator value (TRV). The term ‘appliances’ covers things such as sinks, wash hand basins, baths, showers and
Fig. 12.38 Low level flushing cistern and WC.
Fig. 12.38 Low level flushing cistern and WC.
Fig. 12.37 Ware to pipe connectors.
Fig. 12.37 Ware to pipe connectors.
Fig. 12.39 Close coupled flushing cistern and WC.
Fig. 12.39 Close coupled flushing cistern and WC.
Fig. 12.41 The single stack system with an additional WC on an extended side branch.
Fig. 12.41 The single stack system with an additional WC on an extended side branch.
Fig. 12.40 An instant shower.
Fig. 12.40 An instant shower.
Fig. 12.44 SVP pipe fittings — a bend and a pipe with blank bosses.
Fig. 12.44 SVP pipe fittings — a bend and a pipe with blank bosses.
Fig. 12.45 SVP pipe fittings — push fit bend with syn- thetic rubber seal.
Fig. 12.45 SVP pipe fittings — push fit bend with syn- thetic rubber seal.
Fig. 12.43 SVP pipe fittings — an access pipe.
Fig. 12.43 SVP pipe fittings — an access pipe.
Fig. 12.42 SVP pipe fittings — a pair of branches, one at 137.5° and one at 92.5° with blank bosses.
Fig. 12.42 SVP pipe fittings — a pair of branches, one at 137.5° and one at 92.5° with blank bosses.
Fig. 12.47 Durgo valve. Note that there is a maximum length of
Fig. 12.47 Durgo valve. Note that there is a maximum length of
Fig. 12.46 Basic trap shapes. ala da sUdleiit UlOuUsT dp. WCs should be sited as close to the soil stack as possible, reducing the length of the branch pipework to a minimum. Should the branch exceed approximately 1200, then some means of ventilating the branch has to be fitted. An expensive solution would be to erect another stack, but apart from the expense it might not be possible to accommodate another stack. The solution is to carry the branch pipework past the WC and turn it up the wall next to the WC. The top of this pipework has to be higher than the top of any other appliance connected to the branch — frequently a WHB in the same compartment. Then cap the pipe off with an air admittance valve, sometimes referred to by its original trade name, Durgo valve. It is illustrated in Figure 12.47, which shows a gen- eral view as fitted to the top of the SVP, and the view into the bottom, which doesn’t show alot but merely indicates that there is more to the thing than just a fancy dome! In fact there is a fairly delicate valve mechanism which opens and closes in the flow of air in and out of the SVP. —— -_ we
Fig. 12.46 Basic trap shapes. ala da sUdleiit UlOuUsT dp. WCs should be sited as close to the soil stack as possible, reducing the length of the branch pipework to a minimum. Should the branch exceed approximately 1200, then some means of ventilating the branch has to be fitted. An expensive solution would be to erect another stack, but apart from the expense it might not be possible to accommodate another stack. The solution is to carry the branch pipework past the WC and turn it up the wall next to the WC. The top of this pipework has to be higher than the top of any other appliance connected to the branch — frequently a WHB in the same compartment. Then cap the pipe off with an air admittance valve, sometimes referred to by its original trade name, Durgo valve. It is illustrated in Figure 12.47, which shows a gen- eral view as fitted to the top of the SVP, and the view into the bottom, which doesn’t show alot but merely indicates that there is more to the thing than just a fancy dome! In fact there is a fairly delicate valve mechanism which opens and closes in the flow of air in and out of the SVP. —— -_ we
Table 12.4 Disposal pipe sizes, trap seals and maximum branch lengths.
Table 12.4 Disposal pipe sizes, trap seals and maximum branch lengths.
Fig. 12.48 Schematic of disposal pipe connections to an SVP in domestic premises. Figure 12.48 illustrates other important points regarding the junction with the SWVP.
Fig. 12.48 Schematic of disposal pipe connections to an SVP in domestic premises. Figure 12.48 illustrates other important points regarding the junction with the SWVP.
Fig. 12.50 Plumber’s first fixings. Fig. 12.49 Shock absorber loop on rising main.
Fig. 12.50 Plumber’s first fixings. Fig. 12.49 Shock absorber loop on rising main.
Fig. 13.1 Diagram of sine curve and power genera- tion.
Fig. 13.1 Diagram of sine curve and power genera- tion.
Fig. 13.2 Single phase cut-out and meter in cupboard. Figure 13.2 is a photograph of a typical sin- gle phase cut-out and meter cupboard. There are many different patterns of cut-out and meter. The photograph is fairly self explana- tory. The cupboard, a lidded box, is made of glass fibre and has a piece of 25 particle board fitted in the back onto which the equipment is
Fig. 13.2 Single phase cut-out and meter in cupboard. Figure 13.2 is a photograph of a typical sin- gle phase cut-out and meter cupboard. There are many different patterns of cut-out and meter. The photograph is fairly self explana- tory. The cupboard, a lidded box, is made of glass fibre and has a piece of 25 particle board fitted in the back onto which the equipment is
Fig. 13.4 Schematic of consumer control unit.
Fig. 13.4 Schematic of consumer control unit.
Fig. 13.3 Cables.
Fig. 13.3 Cables.
Fig. 13.5 Consumer control unit. Personal protection is provided by the inclu- sion of an RCCB or ELCB in the CCU. The de- vices used to protect sub-circuits are of three kinds:
Fig. 13.5 Consumer control unit. Personal protection is provided by the inclu- sion of an RCCB or ELCB in the CCU. The de- vices used to protect sub-circuits are of three kinds:
Fig. 13.6 Fuses and a miniature circuit breaker.
Fig. 13.6 Fuses and a miniature circuit breaker.
“Depending on the total rating of the appliances or whether it is only an oven, and a gas hob has been fitted. “This would only allow the fitting of a light and a double socket outlet in the garage. 'This would allow a lighting circuit with several lights and a ring main with several socket outlets to be installed. Table 13.1 Circuits and cables.
“Depending on the total rating of the appliances or whether it is only an oven, and a gas hob has been fitted. “This would only allow the fitting of a light and a double socket outlet in the garage. 'This would allow a lighting circuit with several lights and a ring main with several socket outlets to be installed. Table 13.1 Circuits and cables.
Fig. 13.7 Steel back box and plastic conduit connec- tions.
Fig. 13.7 Steel back box and plastic conduit connec- tions.
Fig. 13.8 Plastic dry lining boxes and cable clips.
Fig. 13.8 Plastic dry lining boxes and cable clips.
Fig. 13.9 Earthing clamps on pipework. Final fix
Fig. 13.9 Earthing clamps on pipework. Final fix
Fig. 13.10 Earthing clip on radiator. Once the first rough is completed, the elec- trician must wait for wall, floor and ceiling finishes to be applied right up to the painting and decoration. When that is at least under way the electrician can return and fit the light switches, socket outlets, etc. to the back boxes or dry lining boxes, the ceiling roses for lights, etc. and make the electrical connections in each. The CCU is also mounted in a cupboard where the tails come through the wall from the meter, and all the connections are made in that. All the earth cabling from around the house must also be connected to an earthing terminal and this connected to the earthing terminal on the supply company’s cut-out.
Fig. 13.10 Earthing clip on radiator. Once the first rough is completed, the elec- trician must wait for wall, floor and ceiling finishes to be applied right up to the painting and decoration. When that is at least under way the electrician can return and fit the light switches, socket outlets, etc. to the back boxes or dry lining boxes, the ceiling roses for lights, etc. and make the electrical connections in each. The CCU is also mounted in a cupboard where the tails come through the wall from the meter, and all the connections are made in that. All the earth cabling from around the house must also be connected to an earthing terminal and this connected to the earthing terminal on the supply company’s cut-out.
Fig. 13.11 Schematic of a residual current circuit breaker.
Fig. 13.11 Schematic of a residual current circuit breaker.
Fig. 13.13 Socket outlets, plug top and cable outlet. Flexible cord is different from the cable used to wire up the sub-circuits, and it is principally the cores which make that difference. Insula- tion is PVC just like the sub-circuit cable, but it may be flat or round and there may or may not be an earth core. Line and neutral cores are insulated brown and blue normally and the earth is always green/yellow. The cores are formed by twisted copper wires, anything from 19 strands upwards being used. The
Fig. 13.13 Socket outlets, plug top and cable outlet. Flexible cord is different from the cable used to wire up the sub-circuits, and it is principally the cores which make that difference. Insula- tion is PVC just like the sub-circuit cable, but it may be flat or round and there may or may not be an earth core. Line and neutral cores are insulated brown and blue normally and the earth is always green/yellow. The cores are formed by twisted copper wires, anything from 19 strands upwards being used. The
Fig. 13.12 Light switches. Figure 13.12 shows switch plates and a ceil- ing lighting pendant. On the left are three
Fig. 13.12 Light switches. Figure 13.12 shows switch plates and a ceil- ing lighting pendant. On the left are three
Fig. 13.14 Electrician’s roughs — cable coming to- gether at the point where the CCU will be sited.
Fig. 13.14 Electrician’s roughs — cable coming to- gether at the point where the CCU will be sited.
Fig. A A completed site plan with details of the placement of buildings and finished floor levels.
Fig. A A completed site plan with details of the placement of buildings and finished floor levels.
Fig. A.2 A 1:500 site plan prepared for a small area of approximately 0.903 hectares.
Fig. A.2 A 1:500 site plan prepared for a small area of approximately 0.903 hectares.
Fig. A.4 Part of the accommodation plan of Old Grange Farm to a scale of 1:50.
Fig. A.4 Part of the accommodation plan of Old Grange Farm to a scale of 1:50.
Fig. A.5 Part of a section through the redeveloped Old Grange Farm to a scale of 1:20.
Fig. A.5 Part of a section through the redeveloped Old Grange Farm to a scale of 1:20.
Fig. A.6 Part of a sheet of details showing wall, ground floor and underfloor construction with intermediate support to the floor.
Fig. A.6 Part of a sheet of details showing wall, ground floor and underfloor construction with intermediate support to the floor.
Fig. B.2 Typical dumpy level and staff.
Fig. B.2 Typical dumpy level and staff.
Fig. B.4 Schematic of dumpy level in use.
Fig. B.4 Schematic of dumpy level in use.
Table B.1 Noting the readings in a level book
Table B.1 Noting the readings in a level book
Fig. B.10 The target. The instrument can also be used to assist in the setting of objects to a given height in the land- scape. Refer to Figure B.7. The process com- mences with setting the telescope level and
Fig. B.10 The target. The instrument can also be used to assist in the setting of objects to a given height in the land- scape. Refer to Figure B.7. The process com- mences with setting the telescope level and
Fig. B.9 The peg and the nail under the EPDM instrument. Fig. B.£8 An EPDM instrument on its tripod and in close-up.
Fig. B.9 The peg and the nail under the EPDM instrument. Fig. B.£8 An EPDM instrument on its tripod and in close-up.
Fig. B.7 Setting to a ‘level’.
Fig. B.7 Setting to a ‘level’.
Fig. C.3 Log, quarter sawn.
Fig. C.3 Log, quarter sawn.
Fig. C.2 Logs, alternative sawings. Lengths and cross-sections available obvi- ously depend on the availability of suitable trees for conversion. As the larger trees are felled or become the subject of conservation, longer lengths and wider and thicker timbers become scarce and more expensive. Timbers over 6.00 metres long are more expensive, as are tim- bers with one side over 200 mm wide. Combine
Fig. C.2 Logs, alternative sawings. Lengths and cross-sections available obvi- ously depend on the availability of suitable trees for conversion. As the larger trees are felled or become the subject of conservation, longer lengths and wider and thicker timbers become scarce and more expensive. Timbers over 6.00 metres long are more expensive, as are tim- bers with one side over 200 mm wide. Combine
Fig. C.1 Log, slab sawn.
Fig. C.1 Log, slab sawn.
Fig. C.4 Schematic of planing and thicknessing ma- chine.
Fig. C.4 Schematic of planing and thicknessing ma- chine.
Fig. C.5 Schematic of four sider machine.
Fig. C.5 Schematic of four sider machine.
Fig. C.6 Distortion of timber sawn from various parts of a log. Figure C.6 shows the distortion of timber when cut from various parts of the log and in
Fig. C.6 Distortion of timber sawn from various parts of a log. Figure C.6 shows the distortion of timber when cut from various parts of the log and in
Fig. C.8 Defects caused by seasoning.
Fig. C.8 Defects caused by seasoning.
Fig. C.10 Schematic of preservative treatment pres- sure cylinder.
Fig. C.10 Schematic of preservative treatment pres- sure cylinder.
Fig. C.9 Demonstration of air entrapment in cells. No matter how far down or how hard the jar is pushed into the liquid, the air trapped will never be displaced. The cells in timber are ina similar state. As the outer cells fill, the inner cells containing air are merely pressurised.
Fig. C.9 Demonstration of air entrapment in cells. No matter how far down or how hard the jar is pushed into the liquid, the air trapped will never be displaced. The cells in timber are ina similar state. As the outer cells fill, the inner cells containing air are merely pressurised.
Fig. C.11 Char ona solid timber beam.
Fig. C.11 Char ona solid timber beam.
Fig. C.12 Portable circular saw — schematic.
Fig. C.12 Portable circular saw — schematic.
Fig. C.14 Plunge router — schematic. The router, illustrated in Figure C.14, was origi- nally conceived as a portable tool (passing over
Fig. C.14 Plunge router — schematic. The router, illustrated in Figure C.14, was origi- nally conceived as a portable tool (passing over
Fig. C.15 Selection of router cutters. timber) but it can be adapted to fit into fixed mounts (the timber is passed over or under the tool). A wide variety of cutter shapes is avail- able and some are shown in Figure C.15. The most common is the straight fluted cutter which can cut rebates, grooves and shape timber and board by following a template.
Fig. C.15 Selection of router cutters. timber) but it can be adapted to fit into fixed mounts (the timber is passed over or under the tool). A wide variety of cutter shapes is avail- able and some are shown in Figure C.15. The most common is the straight fluted cutter which can cut rebates, grooves and shape timber and board by following a template.
The router
The router
Fig. C.17 A groove. Cutting a rectilinear cross-sectioned piece of tim- ber from the body of a plank or board and
Fig. C.17 A groove. Cutting a rectilinear cross-sectioned piece of tim- ber from the body of a plank or board and
Fig. C.18 A trenching.
Fig. C.18 A trenching.
Fig. C.21 A mortice. Anything less than half the thickness or width of the timber is a notching; cutting away half the timber is a halving; cutting more than half the timber is never done. Notching or halving are done with multiple passes of a power saw or router, or multiple saw cuts and hand chiseling, on wrot and sawn timbers.
Fig. C.21 A mortice. Anything less than half the thickness or width of the timber is a notching; cutting away half the timber is a halving; cutting more than half the timber is never done. Notching or halving are done with multiple passes of a power saw or router, or multiple saw cuts and hand chiseling, on wrot and sawn timbers.
Fig. C.20 Notching or halving.
Fig. C.20 Notching or halving.
are shown in the later illustrations on mortice and tenoned joints. It is most common on wrot timber and is done using multiple passes of a fixed saw or router, or a purpose-built machine.
are shown in the later illustrations on mortice and tenoned joints. It is most common on wrot timber and is done using multiple passes of a fixed saw or router, or a purpose-built machine.
Fig. C.25 A dovetail. matching splayed slot or groove. There are many variants from single dovetails to multiple dove- tails, used in furniture and cabinet making. It used to be cut by hand but is now done using a special jig and a router. It is most common in wtrot timbers.
Fig. C.25 A dovetail. matching splayed slot or groove. There are many variants from single dovetails to multiple dove- tails, used in furniture and cabinet making. It used to be cut by hand but is now done using a special jig and a router. It is most common in wtrot timbers.
Fig. C.27 A half checked or halved joint. The timbers can be joined to give:
Fig. C.27 A half checked or halved joint. The timbers can be joined to give:
In carpentry work the timbers are nailed but in joinery work will be pinned and glued or glued and screwed from the hidden face.
In carpentry work the timbers are nailed but in joinery work will be pinned and glued or glued and screwed from the hidden face.
Fig. C.29 A finger joint (2).
Fig. C.29 A finger joint (2).
This is used to join wider timbers or sheet mater- ials at right angles. The extra width allows the edge of the joint to show a plain ‘butt’ joint while
This is used to join wider timbers or sheet mater- ials at right angles. The extra width allows the edge of the joint to show a plain ‘butt’ joint while
Fig. C.33 Shouldered morticed and tenoned joint. This variation of the mé&t joint is used for the bottom and mid rails of bound lining doors — see Chapter 8 on Doors. The illustration shows the bottom rail with the tenon cut, the stile with
Fig. C.33 Shouldered morticed and tenoned joint. This variation of the mé&t joint is used for the bottom and mid rails of bound lining doors — see Chapter 8 on Doors. The illustration shows the bottom rail with the tenon cut, the stile with
Fig. C.32 Plain morticed and tenoned joint.
Fig. C.32 Plain morticed and tenoned joint.
Fig. C.31 A shouldered housing.
Fig. C.31 A shouldered housing.
Fig. C.34 Barefaced morticed and tenoned joint.
Fig. C.34 Barefaced morticed and tenoned joint.
Fig. C.35 Blind morticed and tenoned joint with fox- tail wedges (1). This variation is used to join the rails to the stiles of a door in high quality work. The mortices are ‘blind’, i.e. they do not show on the exposed edges of the doors stiles. Note that the tenon is
Fig. C.35 Blind morticed and tenoned joint with fox- tail wedges (1). This variation is used to join the rails to the stiles of a door in high quality work. The mortices are ‘blind’, i.e. they do not show on the exposed edges of the doors stiles. Note that the tenon is
Fig. C.36 Blind morticed and tenoned joint with fox- tail wedges (2).
Fig. C.36 Blind morticed and tenoned joint with fox- tail wedges (2).
Fig. C.37 Tusk tenoned joint.
Fig. C.37 Tusk tenoned joint.
Fig. C.39 Toe joint.
Fig. C.39 Toe joint.
Fig. C.38 Draw boring morticed and tenoned joints. Draw boring morticed and tenoned joints (Figure C.38)
Fig. C.38 Draw boring morticed and tenoned joints. Draw boring morticed and tenoned joints (Figure C.38)
Fig. C.43 Single and double notchings. Fig. C.42 Scarf joints — variations (2).
Fig. C.43 Single and double notchings. Fig. C.42 Scarf joints — variations (2).
Scarf joint variations (1) (Figure C.41)
Scarf joint variations (1) (Figure C.41)
Fig. C.45 Dovetailing. Dovetailing is more common in cabinet work and the illustration is of a dovetailed joint for
Fig. C.45 Dovetailing. Dovetailing is more common in cabinet work and the illustration is of a dovetailed joint for
Fig. C.46 Sheet metal connectors.
Fig. C.46 Sheet metal connectors.
Fig. C.47 Stress grading machine — schematic. There are at least three companies offer- ing these machines in the UK market. All are
Fig. C.47 Stress grading machine — schematic. There are at least three companies offer- ing these machines in the UK market. All are
Fig. C.49 Traditional flooring board machined from solid timber. Manufactured board materials are now widely used for flooring over joists or battens and also for providing floating floors over insula- tion where the sheets are glued together. Ply- wood was one of the first materials to be givena
Fig. C.49 Traditional flooring board machined from solid timber. Manufactured board materials are now widely used for flooring over joists or battens and also for providing floating floors over insula- tion where the sheets are glued together. Ply- wood was one of the first materials to be givena
Fig. C.48 Stress grading marks. Building Regulations now include load/ span tables for structural timbers such as joists, roof timbers and structural partitions, so that to comply with these regulations the designer has only to match the expected load with the pro- posed span and select the appropriate timber size at a given grade.
Fig. C.48 Stress grading marks. Building Regulations now include load/ span tables for structural timbers such as joists, roof timbers and structural partitions, so that to comply with these regulations the designer has only to match the expected load with the pro- posed span and select the appropriate timber size at a given grade.
Fig. C.50 Corner of a sheet of flooring grade particle board.
Fig. C.50 Corner of a sheet of flooring grade particle board.
Fig. C.51 Four nails in width across a joist or batten.
Fig. C.51 Four nails in width across a joist or batten.
Fig. C.53 Tongue and groove forms and secret nailing of flooring boards. as showing how secret nailing of tongued and grooved floor boards is carried out. The nails mentioned are illustrated in Appendix G.
Fig. C.53 Tongue and groove forms and secret nailing of flooring boards. as showing how secret nailing of tongued and grooved floor boards is carried out. The nails mentioned are illustrated in Appendix G.
Fig. C.52 Laying t&g all round particle board. LH end of the sheet fits into the space C1. It has a groove on the LH end which fits over the tongue on the RH end of the first FS. On plan B, the bit left from cutting C1 from a full sheet is placed on the LH side of the room (C2). The cut end is to the wall and the grooved end is ready to receive the next sheet, which is marked as a full sheet but might be a fraction less. If so, the narrow strip cut-off is discarded. On plan C, the laying continues with an FS laid on the LH end of the floor boards already laid, and a cut C1 is put in next, cut end to the wall on the right. C2 from that cutting is then cut down in width — scribed — but only the tongued edge should be removed as we need the groove to fit over the edge of the previous tongues. Finally, a full sheet is scribed to the wall and laid with the grooved edge over the previous tongues. Quite simple and logical once you work it out. 1 141 1 aa 1
Fig. C.52 Laying t&g all round particle board. LH end of the sheet fits into the space C1. It has a groove on the LH end which fits over the tongue on the RH end of the first FS. On plan B, the bit left from cutting C1 from a full sheet is placed on the LH side of the room (C2). The cut end is to the wall and the grooved end is ready to receive the next sheet, which is marked as a full sheet but might be a fraction less. If so, the narrow strip cut-off is discarded. On plan C, the laying continues with an FS laid on the LH end of the floor boards already laid, and a cut C1 is put in next, cut end to the wall on the right. C2 from that cutting is then cut down in width — scribed — but only the tongued edge should be removed as we need the groove to fit over the edge of the previous tongues. Finally, a full sheet is scribed to the wall and laid with the grooved edge over the previous tongues. Quite simple and logical once you work it out. 1 141 1 aa 1
Fig. D.1 Grading of aggregate.
Fig. D.1 Grading of aggregate.
Fig. D.2 Reinforcement bar shapes.
Fig. D.2 Reinforcement bar shapes.
Fig. D.6 No-fines concrete — typical substructure detail.
Fig. D.6 No-fines concrete — typical substructure detail.
Table E.1 Thickness of screed by method of laying and type of material.
Table E.1 Thickness of screed by method of laying and type of material.
Fig. F1 Shoring strutting and waling using timbers.
Fig. F1 Shoring strutting and waling using timbers.
Fig. F2 Timber and steel sheet piling for earthwork support.
Fig. F2 Timber and steel sheet piling for earthwork support.
Fig. F.3 Steel trench support.
Fig. F.3 Steel trench support.
Fig. G.3 Copper boat nails 35, 50 and 100 long. Note the square shank and whatis termed a rose head. Used for fixing weather boarding etc. in exposed, aggressive situations — near the sea etc.
Fig. G.3 Copper boat nails 35, 50 and 100 long. Note the square shank and whatis termed a rose head. Used for fixing weather boarding etc. in exposed, aggressive situations — near the sea etc.
Fig. G.1 Nails. Top left, starting with 150 and 125 wire nails down to 25 wire nails; to the bottom of that group, a few ‘improved nails’, and to the left of that are two groups of oval and round brads. On the right, a few aluminium slate nails and galvanised felt nails, then two improved nails called drive screws. The latter are used to fix down corrugated metal sheet to timber. Below them, a range of wire nails which have all been galvanised.
Fig. G.1 Nails. Top left, starting with 150 and 125 wire nails down to 25 wire nails; to the bottom of that group, a few ‘improved nails’, and to the left of that are two groups of oval and round brads. On the right, a few aluminium slate nails and galvanised felt nails, then two improved nails called drive screws. The latter are used to fix down corrugated metal sheet to timber. Below them, a range of wire nails which have all been galvanised.
Fig. G.2 Cut nails. At the top are a 125 and two 150 stainless steel cut nails; bottom right, plain steel cut nails and, bottom left, some flooring brads.
Fig. G.2 Cut nails. At the top are a 125 and two 150 stainless steel cut nails; bottom right, plain steel cut nails and, bottom left, some flooring brads.
Fig. G.5 Collated nails for an electrically powered or pneumatic nailer. Both sets of nails are 75 mm long; one set is sherardised and each has a ring barb shank, and the other set is zinc plated and they have square twisted shanks.
Fig. G.5 Collated nails for an electrically powered or pneumatic nailer. Both sets of nails are 75 mm long; one set is sherardised and each has a ring barb shank, and the other set is zinc plated and they have square twisted shanks.
Fig. G.6 A selection of screw nails for timber
Fig. G.6 A selection of screw nails for timber
Fig. G.4 Improved nails—on the right the long nail has a square twisted shank and on the left are two groups of nails with ring barb shanks; the smaller nails are of plain steel and the larger are of phosphor bronze.
Fig. G.4 Improved nails—on the right the long nail has a square twisted shank and on the left are two groups of nails with ring barb shanks; the smaller nails are of plain steel and the larger are of phosphor bronze.
Fig. G.7 Cutters/bits for, left to right: a counter- sink; countersink and clearance hole; and countersink, clearance hole and pilot hole.
Fig. G.7 Cutters/bits for, left to right: a counter- sink; countersink and clearance hole; and countersink, clearance hole and pilot hole.
Fig. G.8 Plug cutter and plugs through various stages of pelletting over.
Fig. G.8 Plug cutter and plugs through various stages of pelletting over.
Fig. G.9 Bolts and coach screws. Top left, four coach screws, galvanised and black iron; below them, five coach bolts; on the right, a selection of hex bolts and a single nyloc nut. One screw which is used for heavy work is the coach screw (Figure G.9). The shank is tapered and the bottom two-thirds have a tapered thread with a relatively sharp point, but the head is either square or occasionally hexagonal, both
Fig. G.9 Bolts and coach screws. Top left, four coach screws, galvanised and black iron; below them, five coach bolts; on the right, a selection of hex bolts and a single nyloc nut. One screw which is used for heavy work is the coach screw (Figure G.9). The shank is tapered and the bottom two-thirds have a tapered thread with a relatively sharp point, but the head is either square or occasionally hexagonal, both
Fig. G.10 Bulldog timber connector. The truss had to be made in a jig, and it was not uncommon in the 1950s to see a rough shel- ter built on a site and under it the carpenters cutting out and laying timbers in a jig, boring holes through them all and then fitting connec- tors in place over a high tensile steel nut and bolt with several large, well greased washers fitted. A long-handled ring spanner was used to tighten up, the teeth on the Bulldog connector or the ring on the shear connector biting into the timbers. If there were too many layers, the bolt had to be put into only a few at a time, and then more timbers and connectors added until the whole
Fig. G.10 Bulldog timber connector. The truss had to be made in a jig, and it was not uncommon in the 1950s to see a rough shel- ter built on a site and under it the carpenters cutting out and laying timbers in a jig, boring holes through them all and then fitting connec- tors in place over a high tensile steel nut and bolt with several large, well greased washers fitted. A long-handled ring spanner was used to tighten up, the teeth on the Bulldog connector or the ring on the shear connector biting into the timbers. If there were too many layers, the bolt had to be put into only a few at a time, and then more timbers and connectors added until the whole
Fig. G.11 Some nails for masonry and the hand tool for masonry nails.
Fig. G.11 Some nails for masonry and the hand tool for masonry nails.
Fig. G.12 Hilti gun, cartridges and nails. and cartridge are loaded into the gun, and the nose of the barrel is depressed against the tim- ber. This releases the safety catch and the trigger can be pulled. The cartridge fires and the nail is driven into the timber and the background. A range of cartridges is available which allows backgrounds of different types and densities to be penetrated. It is possible to nail timbers to the flanges of steel joist and beams. A Hilti gun, car- tridges and nails features in the photograph in Figure G.12.
Fig. G.12 Hilti gun, cartridges and nails. and cartridge are loaded into the gun, and the nose of the barrel is depressed against the tim- ber. This releases the safety catch and the trigger can be pulled. The cartridge fires and the nail is driven into the timber and the background. A range of cartridges is available which allows backgrounds of different types and densities to be penetrated. It is possible to nail timbers to the flanges of steel joist and beams. A Hilti gun, car- tridges and nails features in the photograph in Figure G.12.
Fig. G.14 Fibre, plastic and amorphous plugging for fixing screw nails. The preformed soft material fastenings were first introduced by the original Rawlplug Co, now Artex-Rawlplug, and were simple tubes of
Fig. G.14 Fibre, plastic and amorphous plugging for fixing screw nails. The preformed soft material fastenings were first introduced by the original Rawlplug Co, now Artex-Rawlplug, and were simple tubes of
Fig. G.15 On the left are two bolts, one with a hex head and the longer one with a Torx head. These are designed to be screwed into concrete requiring a pre- cisely drilled and clean pilot hole. On the right are im- proved shank bronze nails, again used to fix weather boarding etc. in aggressive situations such as near the sea.
Fig. G.15 On the left are two bolts, one with a hex head and the longer one with a Torx head. These are designed to be screwed into concrete requiring a pre- cisely drilled and clean pilot hole. On the right are im- proved shank bronze nails, again used to fix weather boarding etc. in aggressive situations such as near the sea.
Fig. G.16 Rawlbolts — schematic.
Fig. G.16 Rawlbolts — schematic.
Fig. G.18 Spring toggle and expanding fasteners for blind fixing in hollow sections or panels.
Fig. G.18 Spring toggle and expanding fasteners for blind fixing in hollow sections or panels.
Fig. G.17 Rawlbolts M6 and M12 in bolt projecting and loose bolt types.
Fig. G.17 Rawlbolts M6 and M12 in bolt projecting and loose bolt types.
Fig. G.19 Spring and gravity toggle fasteners — schematic. Fixing back to a hollow background is another area where inventive minds have run riot. All the fixings manufactured depend on having a device which expands behind the skin or panel to which you are fastening — except one, which is the gravity toggle. This goes through the hole all aligned, then gravity takes over and part of it falls over and can be drawn up tight against the back of the panel. Figures G.18, G19 and G.20 show all this. Frame fixings (Figures G.21 and G.22) were spe- cially developed to make the fixing of door and window frames into openings in masonry walls easier than with the traditional plug or dook. To use them, the frame has a clearance hole drilled for each fixing. Then a masonry drill is used through the clearance hole to drill correspond- ing holes in the masonry reveals. To do this
Fig. G.19 Spring and gravity toggle fasteners — schematic. Fixing back to a hollow background is another area where inventive minds have run riot. All the fixings manufactured depend on having a device which expands behind the skin or panel to which you are fastening — except one, which is the gravity toggle. This goes through the hole all aligned, then gravity takes over and part of it falls over and can be drawn up tight against the back of the panel. Figures G.18, G19 and G.20 show all this. Frame fixings (Figures G.21 and G.22) were spe- cially developed to make the fixing of door and window frames into openings in masonry walls easier than with the traditional plug or dook. To use them, the frame has a clearance hole drilled for each fixing. Then a masonry drill is used through the clearance hole to drill correspond- ing holes in the masonry reveals. To do this
Fig. G.22 Frame fixings — the large one on the right is 150 long. Next to it is the drive screw which is used. Note the shape of the thread.
Fig. G.22 Frame fixings — the large one on the right is 150 long. Next to it is the drive screw which is used. Note the shape of the thread.
Fig. G.20 Rawlnuts and plastic mushroom fasteners — schematic.
Fig. G.20 Rawlnuts and plastic mushroom fasteners — schematic.
Fig. G.21 Frame fixings — schematic. These devices are widely used in the indus- try but there appears to be little advantage over the traditional plug or dook. The plug or dook can be cut from waste timber, and waste from
Fig. G.21 Frame fixings — schematic. These devices are widely used in the indus- try but there appears to be little advantage over the traditional plug or dook. The plug or dook can be cut from waste timber, and waste from
Fig. G.23 A chemical anchor schematic. A more up-to-date system uses a mastic gun and a cartridge of one par resin to fill the hole into which the anchor is set.
Fig. G.23 A chemical anchor schematic. A more up-to-date system uses a mastic gun and a cartridge of one par resin to fill the hole into which the anchor is set.
Fig. G.24 Skeleton gun for injecting compounds into holes, grooves or recesses in construction work.
Fig. G.24 Skeleton gun for injecting compounds into holes, grooves or recesses in construction work.
Fig. H.2 Taping and jointing board joints. Alternatively, fixing can be with screw nails — dry lining screws — which are made of hardened steel and have a specially shaped head with a Phillips or Pozidriv slot, a thread which has a fast
Fig. H.2 Taping and jointing board joints. Alternatively, fixing can be with screw nails — dry lining screws — which are made of hardened steel and have a specially shaped head with a Phillips or Pozidriv slot, a thread which has a fast
Fig. H.3 Dry lining screw, nail and screwdriver bit. For small jobs, hammering in nails with a joiner’s hammer is not too tedious but to speed up the process and reduce the physical effort fixing with screws is extremely good. Battery powered tools have changed attitudes in the in- dustry, and the use of collated dry lining screws in a portable tool makes fixing large sheets of
Fig. H.3 Dry lining screw, nail and screwdriver bit. For small jobs, hammering in nails with a joiner’s hammer is not too tedious but to speed up the process and reduce the physical effort fixing with screws is extremely good. Battery powered tools have changed attitudes in the in- dustry, and the use of collated dry lining screws in a portable tool makes fixing large sheets of
Fig. H.1 Double plasterboard layer with board joints staggered.
Fig. H.1 Double plasterboard layer with board joints staggered.
Fig. H.4 Dry lining screws and driver bit.
Fig. H.4 Dry lining screws and driver bit.
Fig. 1.3 Laying and overlapping of DPC and DPM.
Fig. 1.3 Laying and overlapping of DPC and DPM.
Fig. 1.4 Brick and tile DPCs to scale.
Fig. 1.4 Brick and tile DPCs to scale.
Fig. 1.2 Placement and thickness of DPC and DPM in a detail drawing.
Fig. 1.2 Placement and thickness of DPC and DPM in a detail drawing.
Table I.1 Class and description of each type of bitumen DPX from Table 1 of BS 6398 Table 2 of BS 6398 lists suitable locations for the use of these DPCs, with the recommendations based on the following: Table 2 of BS 6398 lists suitable locations for the use of these DPCs, with the recommendations based on the following: with a layer of concrete. This will be under the timber hung ground floor of the house.
Table I.1 Class and description of each type of bitumen DPX from Table 1 of BS 6398 Table 2 of BS 6398 lists suitable locations for the use of these DPCs, with the recommendations based on the following: Table 2 of BS 6398 lists suitable locations for the use of these DPCs, with the recommendations based on the following: with a layer of concrete. This will be under the timber hung ground floor of the house.
Fig. 1.5 Polythene DPM.
Fig. 1.5 Polythene DPM.
Fig. 1.8 Weep opened up to show the baffles and water channels.
Fig. 1.8 Weep opened up to show the baffles and water channels.
Fig. 1.7 A proprietary plastic weep.
Fig. 1.7 A proprietary plastic weep.
Fig. I.6 Schematic of a weep formed at ground level in a masonry wall.
Fig. I.6 Schematic of a weep formed at ground level in a masonry wall.
Fig. 1.9 Ventilators and liners made in terracotta.
Fig. 1.9 Ventilators and liners made in terracotta.
Fig. 1.10 Closing all four sides of vent opening with cuttings of roofing slate. One of the many gadgets made for the indus- try is a telescopic liner for underfloor ventilators. They can be used to duct air across and up or down a cavity where there is a non-conventional arrangement of ground and floor levels. For ex- ample, a hung floor might be built which is
Fig. 1.10 Closing all four sides of vent opening with cuttings of roofing slate. One of the many gadgets made for the indus- try is a telescopic liner for underfloor ventilators. They can be used to duct air across and up or down a cavity where there is a non-conventional arrangement of ground and floor levels. For ex- ample, a hung floor might be built which is
Fig. 1.13 A similar liner built into a cavity wall in the wrong place.
Fig. 1.13 A similar liner built into a cavity wall in the wrong place.
Fig. 1.11 Telescopic liner for under floor ventilators.
Fig. 1.11 Telescopic liner for under floor ventilators.
Fig. 1.12 Terracotta liner built into a blockwork sub- structure wall.
Fig. 1.12 Terracotta liner built into a blockwork sub- structure wall.
Fig.1.15 Typical house plan with the position of vents.
Fig.1.15 Typical house plan with the position of vents.
Fig. 1.14 A typical vent in a cavity wall with a 100 thick outer leaf of artificial stone.
Fig. 1.14 A typical vent in a cavity wall with a 100 thick outer leaf of artificial stone.
Fig. 1.16 A house with part of the floor of solid con- crete on upfill construction.
Fig. 1.16 A house with part of the floor of solid con- crete on upfill construction.
Fig. I.18 A house with a small area of hung floor - adequate ventilation.
Fig. I.18 A house with a small area of hung floor - adequate ventilation.
Fig. 1.17 A house with a small area of hung floor — inadequate ventilation.
Fig. 1.17 A house with a small area of hung floor — inadequate ventilation.
Fig. J.1. Architectural drawing symbols (1). As one would expect, the drawing of archi- tectural details requires a common methodo- logy for the representation of building materials
Fig. J.1. Architectural drawing symbols (1). As one would expect, the drawing of archi- tectural details requires a common methodo- logy for the representation of building materials
While DPCs and DPMs are always shown to an exaggerated scale, the problem also arises with membranes. Where plastic, paper
While DPCs and DPMs are always shown to an exaggerated scale, the problem also arises with membranes. Where plastic, paper
Table A Common cross-sections with availability and relative cost. machining of the opposite faces, generally with rotary knives, to bring the surfaces to a smooth, even finish and the timbers to the same overall dimensions. The surfaces will only require sanding before a decorative finish is applied — paint, varnish, stain, etc. This reduction in overall size is controlled within the limits set out in Table C and de- pends on the end use of the timber and the ba- sic sawn dimensions. The reductions vary from 4 to 13 mm and are inclusive of any ‘re-sawing’
Table A Common cross-sections with availability and relative cost. machining of the opposite faces, generally with rotary knives, to bring the surfaces to a smooth, even finish and the timbers to the same overall dimensions. The surfaces will only require sanding before a decorative finish is applied — paint, varnish, stain, etc. This reduction in overall size is controlled within the limits set out in Table C and de- pends on the end use of the timber and the ba- sic sawn dimensions. The reductions vary from 4 to 13 mm and are inclusive of any ‘re-sawing’
Table B Common lengths showing availability and effect on cost.
Table B Common lengths showing availability and effect on cost.
Table C Maximum permitted reductions from basic sawn sizes to finished sizes by planing two opposing faces (mm).
Table C Maximum permitted reductions from basic sawn sizes to finished sizes by planing two opposing faces (mm).

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