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2024, Made in China Journal
China is experiencing climate whiplash: extreme fluctuations between drought and flooding that threaten the health and autonomy of millions of people. Set against mounting anxiety over the future of global water supplies, Andrea E. Pia’s Cutting the Mass Line: Water, Politics, and Climate in Southwest China (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2024) investigates the enduring political, technical, and ethical project of making water available to human communities and ecosystems in a time of drought, infrastructural disrepair, and environmental breakdown. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork, archival materials, and statistical data, Pia brings readers into the inner workings of China’s complex water supply ecosystem and demonstrates how citizens’ efforts to keep access to local water sources and flourish in their communities redraw the political possibilities of climate and environmental collective action in unforeseen directions.
The length and occurrence of droughts in China have increased considerably in the last few years. The ensuing water crisis, which now affects the whole country, will loom large over the future prospects of the Chinese economy. Moreover, the lack of water experienced by many people in China has not failed to cause social unrest. In the last decade the confrontation between the farmers and the local administration around water allocations has risen, leading often to overt violence. As a way to tackle this multifaceted crisis, China amended its Water Law in 2002, thereby introducing a new framework for water management. This shift in governance has produced the adoption of a set of principles emphasizing the need for increased participation of users in water management, and the implementation of water conservation technologies. New inequalities are thus created: while urban dwellers are increasingly being protected from the effects of the shortage, rural communities are facing the contradiction of an imposed economic development agenda under mounting environmental constraints and diminishing state intervention. This paper, drawing from two different ethnographic studies conducted in rural China between 2007 and 2013, explores how drought and the politics of water management are played out in the Chinese rural countryside. In particular it discusses how mistrust between farmers and the many institutions supervising water management in the communities impact the water reform and its effectiveness. In this process feelings of dependency, care and betrayal are generated, pushing often local farmers and the state to violent confrontations.
A B S T R A C T Between 2005 and 2010 state actors constructed a centralized piped water system to serve 50,000 rural households in a semi-arid region of Northwest China. However, the intended beneficiaries of this project largely chose not to connect the system, and were often ambivalent towards its success. I explain this ambivalence through Foucault's (2007) engagement with the role of the aleatory in the formation of modern state power. The aleatory is those elements of risk, chance and contingency that cannot be fully controlled , but can be calculated and the adverse effects thereof mitigated through what Foucault calls apparatuses of security. Managing the aleatory was a central moment in the emergence of governmentality as a means of exercising state power. Peasants' ambivalence towards centralized piped water originates in the success of a previous state-backed improved rainwater-harvesting program that has significantly reduced peasants' risk of water shortage and placed households in control of risks of water shortage. By improving peasants' ability to cope with drought, rainwater harvesting decentralized power over and knowledge about household water resources. In contrast, piped water has centralized both power over water, and the risk of water shortage in the hands of state actors, but has interacted with local water markets in ways that empower households to reduce the risk of water shortage from both natural sources and the state. The shifting reconfigurations of the risk of water shortages explain how state power has been extended through water management despite the population's selective engagement with piped water. Introduction In 2005, the Anding District Water Bureau (ADWB) began a project to provide piped drinking water to 50,000 rural households in the semi-arid Anding District of Gansu, China. Five years later as the project came towards the targeted completion date, only 31% of the intended beneficiaries had signed up to connect to the piped network, while 41% planned to connect but had not yet connected , primarily for financial reasons. The remaining 28% had no intention of connecting. This conjuncture, that a large number of people in a water scarce region would choose not to connect to running water, can be explained by examining the political ecology of state power and domestic water provision through the lens of Foucault's analysis of the aleatory – those events which arises from chance, risk, or contingency. The aleatory formed a central moment in Foucault's (2007) genealogy of the rise of governmentality as a new technology of state power in the modern era and is a helpful tool in our understanding of political ecologies of state power. In this study I demonstrate that peasant indifference to state backed running water can be more aptly thought of as selective engagement with state development projects and explained through a shifting political economy of risk of domestic water shortages that arose from state environmental governance. By the time the running water project described above began, the ADWB had been governing the risk of domestic water shortage through the decentralized technology of household-based rainwater harvesting for about 10 years. Rainwater harvesting and piped water can be seen as two very different approaches to the expression of state power over the bio-physical resource of water, risk of water scarcity, and knowledge surrounding water management. Rainwater harvesting can be understood in terms of what Foucault called apparatuses of security, which are fundamentally centrifugal forms of power that gave households greater control over potential water shortages. Piped water, in contrast, concentrated risks of water shortage in a state-run system, and can be understood in terms of juridical and disciplinary forms of power that are fundamentally centripetal. The politics of drinking water in the Anding District provide one example of governmentality as technology of power based on the application of apparatuses of security to the aleatory. Foucault (2007) argued that apparatuses of security were instruments that enabled governmentality by managing the aleatory through understanding
The length and occurrence of droughts in China have increased considerably in the last few years. It has been now recognised that this trend is the cause of severe damages to the economic growth prospects of China, as well as a potential threat to its social stability. As a way to tackle the problem, China amended its Water Law in 2002, thereby introducing a new framework for water management. This shift in governance has produced the adoption of a set of principles emphasizing the need for increased participation of users in water management and establishing market mechanisms for water trade. For this reason China started developing Water Users' Associations (WUA) – farmers-run associations that supervises water management at the village level - with the belief that devolving rights locally would avert future water-shortages. However, many are the data suggesting WUAs are failing. This ethnographic study conducted among members of different WUAs operating in Yiche city, Huize county - a drought-prone area located in Yunnan Province - , suggests that the imperatives of the local politics effect the extent to which WUA are implemented in the countryside. In particular this paper discusses how fears over farmers associating outside the purview of the Communist Party alter the impact of the water reform. The long standing preoccupation over social stability in rural China has led to prioritise drought-relief measures and universal access to water over water efficiency and sustainability; but this only at the expanses of villagers' participation to the decision making process.
The classical Chinese novel The water margin tells the story of a group of petty officials who take a collective stance against the widespread corruption and unfairness of imperial Chinese society. At the root of this story lies the deeply ethical conundrum of redressing injustice when unchecked power prevails. This article draws from this insight to explore some of the ethical dilemmas Chinese state bureaucrats in Yunnan face today when provisioning drinking water to rural communities. Yunnanese officials are burdened with these dilemmas by the state's conspicuous retreat from rural public services in favour of market-based supply. Through their ethical interventions, Chinese bureaucrats are able to temporarily defer the collapsing of rural water provisions which is caused by the contradictions introduced by the marketization of water. However, such interventions may be followed by further damage to the environment.
Frontiers of Earth Science, 2020
In rural northwestern China, the tension between economic growth and ecological crises demonstrates the limitations of dominant top-down approaches to water management. In the 1990s, the Chinese government adopted the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach to combat the degradation of water and ecological systems throughout its rural regions. While the approach has had some success at reducing desertification, water shortage, and ecological deterioration, there are important limitations and obstacles that continue to impede optimum outcomes in water management. As the current IWRM approach is instituted through a top-down centralized bureaucratic structure, it often fails to address the socio-political context in which water management is embedded and therefore lacks a complete treatment of how power is embedded in the bureaucracy and how it articulates through economic growth imperatives set by the Chinese state. The approach has relied on infrastructure heavy and technocratic solutions to govern water demand, which has worked to undermine the focus on integration and public participation. Finally, the historical process through which water management mechanisms have been instituted are fraught with bureaucratic fragmentation and processes of centralization that work against some of its primary goals such as reducing uncertainty and risk in water management systems. This article reveals the historical, social, political, and economic processes behind these shortcomings in water management in rural northwestern China by focusing on the limitations of a top-down approach that rely on infrastructure, technology, and quantification, and thereby advances a more holistic, socio-political perspective for water management that considers the state-society dynamics inherent in water governance in rural China.
The China Quarterly, 2014
Made in China: A Quarterly on Chinese Labour, Civil Society, and Rights, 2017
The debate over China’s environmental issues has given scant consideration to already existing popular alternatives to the topdown, growth-compatible governance of the country’s natural resources. Forty years of Party-sanctified insistence on pursuing relentless economic development has seemingly suppressed alternative discourses in natural resource management. However, if we take closer look, we will find that at the grassroots there is no lack of alternatives. For instance, in contemporary rural China there are places where water is being managed as a commons.
Political Ecology, 2022
This paper examines the politics of rural water governance in China through a governmentality lens and village water intervention case. The China Rural Drinking Water Safety Project (RDWSP) was an attempt to control water, while also serving as a tool of power to impel the rural population towards national development goals. The authors analyzed official documents and conducted interviews in a village in Shandong Province to investigate the RDWSP's rationale and practices, as well as how water access and management were negotiated by rural water users. The paper argues that (1) confronted with a decline in local governance capacity and in an effort to rectify the mistakes of the supply-driven, technocratic paradigm, the RDWSP attempted to integrate social, environmental and economic concerns but did not achieve that goal; (2) the decline in local governance capacity and people's pragmatic everyday strategies contributed to an individualized approach to solving water problems, reflected in people's disengagement from the government project and local participation, an effect that may sustain people's marginalization and exclusion from good-quality water access and management. Using the Chinese water project as an example, the paper contributes to the debate on state-induced water control versus civil society "counter-conduct" formed by daily interactions. Furthermore, it enriches the study of politics in general by presenting the state as a site of contested institutionalization and ongoing negotiations, confronted by everyday narratives and encounters with marginalized citizens that go far beyond and are far more complex than overt resistance or covert weapons of the weak.
Journal of Political Ecology, 2023
Water is a matter of great concern for the PRC, especially for its agricultural sector, besieged by shortage, soil degradation, and raising production costs. Because of this, Water Users' Associations (WUA) are garnering domestic attention as a cost-effective solution for growth-compatible sustainability. These associations are inspired by Elinor Ostrom's design principles for the management of common resources. Through long-term ethnography among various stakeholders of the Yunnanese water sector, this article challenges the notion that the implementation of Ostrom-inspired WUAs in the Chinese countryside is fulfilling the associations' accompanying promises of sustainable growth. Instead, this study finds that Chinese WUAs proliferate thanks to pre-existing promises of collective prosperity. Northeastern Yunnan is rich in social arrangements for sustainable water management that predate the introduction of WUAs and make their ordinary operations possible. WUAs proponents conveniently blame the failure they see in Ostrom-inspired organisations on said arrangements while retaining faith in Ostrom's design principles. An ethnography of Ostrom-inspired associations can salvage Ostrom's intellectual project from the prescriptive readings of development planners and her critics. Yet, it also shows that alternative sustainable arrangements in human projects for the environment may become less plausible once captured by the prescriptive episteme of development planners.
2015
II. The Anatomy of China's Water Crisis Despite China's large population of 1.26 billion people, its per capita water resources of 2,343 m3/person/year is substantially above the internationally accepted definition of water scarcity of 1000 m3/head/year. 18 It also has an extensive body of environmental law with an elaborate organizational structure to carry out these laws. Yet, water pollution and water scarcity (particularly in Northern China) are two of the seven priority areas recognized by National Environmental Protection Agency and the State Planning Commission in China's Economic Action Plan for 1991-2000. 19 From devastating floods to water scarcity, from pollution to corruption, from water riots to transboundary riparian conflicts, management of water supply and quality has become so problematic that many scholars have send warning signals to Beijing about the potential environmental and political implications of water issues to the regime and China's people. 20 China's water problems can be described from several angles: (1) distribution of water and population, to provide a snapshot of the problem; (2) environmental policy and law, to shed light on institutional frameworks designed to deal with the issue; (3) the enforcement structure and governance that carry out these laws; (4) economic trends and reforms that directly affect water demand and management; and (5) the government's predilection for large structural solutions. Distribution: availability and population As China's relatively high per capita water resources suggest, water would be reasonably plentiful were it not for the effects of uneven spatial and temporal variations in population density and availability of freshwater (See Table 2.1). Water problems are particularly serious in the areas of northern rivers-those north of and including the Yellow River-due to lower per
Environmental Winds challenges the notion that globalized social formations emerged solely in the Global North prior to impacting the Global South. Instead, such formations have been constituted, transformed, and propelled through diverse, site-specific social interactions that complicate and defy divisions between 'global' and 'local.' The book brings the reader into the lives of Chinese scientists, officials, villagers, and expatriate conservationists who were caught up in environmental trends over the past 25 years. Hathaway reveals how global environmentalism has been enacted and altered in China, often with unanticipated effects, such as the rise of indigenous rights, or the reconfiguration of human/animal relationships, fostering what rural villagers refer to as “the revenge of wild elephants.”
European Bulletin of Himalayan Research, 2022
Water is more than a natural resource in Dai communities in Xishuangbanna (Sipsongpanna) Dai Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan Province, China. It is a relational being embodying both worldly and transcendental values among Dai people. Water is the critical source of irrigation for Dai people’s wet-rice cultivation and has been an important component of their Theravada Buddhist ritual practices since ancient times. However, over the past seventy years, the intensive expansion of rubber plantations, continual deforestation and large-scale diversion of rivers have led to water shortage crises in many Dai villages. Against this backdrop, this article investigates how Dai people relate to water and the challenges that water management poses for relatively low-value but water-intensive wet-rice cultivation. In recounting the stories of the Dai people, the article sheds light on the broader issue of how adaptation to a growing water crisis has shaped and will continue to shape everyday life, religious practices and politics among rice-cultivating people.
Climate Futures: Reimagining Global Climate Justice, 2019
This chapter starts with a brief summary of the main shifts in the Chinese government’s general attitudes on climate change and justice, and then explains the main non-state actors and NGOs in the field and their main contribution to voicing alternative opinions. Juxtaposing both governmental and non-governmental climate initiatives sheds light on the fact that NGOs are late comers and less than junior partners, in contrast with governmental agencies, in China’s climate politics. In addition to pointing out this general pattern of political dynamics and the unfinished task of merging climate policy discourse with general discussions on political reform and social justice in the country, at the end of this chapter I call attention to a number of issue areas in China that could present more visible evidence of differentiated vulnerabilities to climate change in future.
Vermont Journal of Environmental Law, 2014
It is hard to overstate the importance of water. It is vital to human development and its movement sustains all life. The natural water regime in a river, lake, wetland, or coastal zone constitutes the “environmental flows” that ensure the right quality, quantity, and patterns of flow for human and ecological health. These environmental flows maintain the capacity of watersheds to purify water, regulate floods, maintain biodiversity and meet diverse human needs. The availability of water in China, as one of the most populous countries, has a profound effect on the world’s human and ecological health. China is a water-scarce country with a highly uneven distribution of naturally occurring rainfall, surface water and groundwater. By 2030, China’s Ministry of Water Resources predicts that per capita water resources in the country will fall below the World Bank’s level of “water scarcity” (i.e., 1000 cubic meters per person per year). In light of serious concerns over water availability, China’s 12th Five- Year Plan is the first to enunciate the goal of improving water management.5 Although it aims to reduce the water intensity of China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP), it does not clarify how the allocation and distribution of residual water would be improved.6 Using less water per unit GDP, while laudable, does not ensure that water serves diverse human uses and in-stream environmental flows. In contrast, environmental customary law, which has governed water resources for centuries in China, provides insights to practically improve the equitable, efficient, and ecologically sustainable management of water. This paper explores the ways in which ethnic customary and ancient Han law provide a framework for improving the implementation of modern water law in China, with particular focus on Yunnan Province. In Yunnan, the principles of equilibrium, reciprocity, and duality in Chinese customary law would improve the equity and efficiency of water rights distribution, allocation, and dispute resolution. Currently, under China’s Constitution and 2002 Water Law, the lack of defined rights, poor implementation of rights, lack of system-wide coordination and consistency, and inadequate understanding of natural environmental flow regimes plague China’s water governance. In addition, China’s Water Law relies on a dispute settlement procedure that does not resolve the large degree of ambiguity and insecurity in water rights. Modern-day water allocation problems in Yunnan, as well as the region’s rich ethnic diversity and customary laws, offer an opportunity to apply customary law to strengthen the local relevancy, consistency, and validity of water governance. In addition, the customary law of ethnic minorities in Yunnan is consistent with the Han majority’s traditional approaches to water management. Further, China’s autonomous regions and ethnic minorities hold modest statutory authority over resource management. This provides an opportunity to investigate the role of customary environmental law in improving the equitable and environmentally sound distribution of water resources. In general, ethnic environmental customary law provides a counterweight to the heavy top- down approach to water management and to a political dialogue that devalues local knowledge and ecological needs. Overall, it affords a framework for public participation in water allocation planning and supports the development of a pluralist approach to living within the ecological limits of a river.
Anthropological Notebooks , 2019
Win-Ping Kuo: Living with "abnormal" drought in rain-soaked Taiwan: Analysis of water consumption practices and discourses ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTEBOOKS 25 (2): 71-91. Abstract In this study, I investigated how media represents drought as a slow-onset hazard and how the general public interprets drought and restructures their water consumption practices when confronting a severe drought event in Taiwan. Empirical data were collected from the periods of drought in Taiwan between 2014 to 2015, including 1,760 news reports, 6,030 online discussion threads, and ethnographic data from 41 participants for analysis. Discourse analysis suggests that considerable discrepancy exists between media, state and general public understanding of droughts. Media and state discourses emphasise the abnormality of drought and lexically modify the hazard with metaphorical expressions of war in order to rationalise the government's intervention and governance of water supply. The general public primarily articulate drought to the political ecology of unequal water allocation, management, and consumption. The investigation of water consumption practices suggested that a coherent and painless method of achieving sustainable water consumption does not exist. Water consumption practices are fabricated within the sensory experience of the local hydro-environment from social actors, the relationship between human and nonhuman technological devices, and domestic dynamics as well as political and economic considerations of water. Therefore, in this paper, I argue that drought should be redefined as an admixture hazard and be normalised in everyday life in regions that face uncertain meteorological changes to establish a more sustainable water culture.
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