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Bioarchaeological field analysis of human remains from the mass graves at Phaleron, Greece

Profile image of Anna LinderholmAnna LinderholmProfile image of Vendela Kempe LagerholmVendela Kempe LagerholmProfile image of Anne IngvarssonAnne IngvarssonProfile image of Ylva A E BäckströmYlva A E BäckströmProfile image of Stella ChryssoulakiStella Chryssoulaki

2019, Opuscula Annual of the Swedish Institutes at Athens and Rome 12 2019 STOCKHOLM SVENSKA INSTITUTEN I ATHEN OCH ROM INSTITUTUM ATHENIENSE ATQUE INSTITUTUM ROMANUM REGNI SUECIAE

https://doi.org/10.30549/opathrom-12-02
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AI-generated Abstract

This study investigates the bioarchaeological aspects of human remains found in mass graves at the Phaleron cemetery in Greece, which offers insights into societal perceptions of death and burial practices during the Archaic era. By analyzing various types of burials, including deviant and violent ones, the research aims to fill gaps in the understanding of how ancient Attic society dealt with death and its implications.

Figures (389)

Table 1. The percentage of burial types in relation to total number of burials excavated. the Archaic era. The Phaleron cemetery includes all kinds of burials: individual burials, as well as mass burials with traces of violence. The excavation of a considerable number of devi- ant burials at Phaleron will fill a gap in archaeological research into the issue of Archaic society’s behaviour towards burials that diverge from the norm.
Table 1. The percentage of burial types in relation to total number of burials excavated. the Archaic era. The Phaleron cemetery includes all kinds of burials: individual burials, as well as mass burials with traces of violence. The excavation of a considerable number of devi- ant burials at Phaleron will fill a gap in archaeological research into the issue of Archaic society’s behaviour towards burials that diverge from the norm.
Fig. 1. An aerial view of the site with the ongoing excavation. The mass grave of the captives is roofed by the white shelter. Photograph: G. Asvestas/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
Fig. 1. An aerial view of the site with the ongoing excavation. The mass grave of the captives is roofed by the white shelter. Photograph: G. Asvestas/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
Fig. 2. Different types of burials in the same area: three pot burials, three cist-graves and one pyre (above) and a typical sector of the Phaleron cemetery (below): several pot-burials, two pit-graves and traces of one cist grave next to a pit grave. Photographs: G. Asvestas/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
Fig. 2. Different types of burials in the same area: three pot burials, three cist-graves and one pyre (above) and a typical sector of the Phaleron cemetery (below): several pot-burials, two pit-graves and traces of one cist grave next to a pit grave. Photographs: G. Asvestas/Ephorate of Antiquities of West Attica, Piraeus and Islands.
Fig 3. Overview of the area of the mass graves. The drawing includes skeletons that are not considered to be related to the mass burials presented here.
Fig 3. Overview of the area of the mass graves. The drawing includes skeletons that are not considered to be related to the mass burials presented here.
Fig. 10. Part of the 3D digital model, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University. Fig. 8. Sampling at Phaleron, Dr Anna Kjellstrim, Stockholm University.
Fig. 10. Part of the 3D digital model, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University. Fig. 8. Sampling at Phaleron, Dr Anna Kjellstrim, Stockholm University.
Fig. 9. Work for the 3D digital model, by research engineer Stefan Lind- gren and Victor Lundstrém, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University.
Fig. 9. Work for the 3D digital model, by research engineer Stefan Lind- gren and Victor Lundstrém, Humanities Laboratory, Lund University.
Fig. 11. The stratigraphy of the excavation at the Phaleron Delta.
Fig. 11. The stratigraphy of the excavation at the Phaleron Delta.
Table 2. Missing skeletal parts in Row 1.
Table 2. Missing skeletal parts in Row 1.
Fig. 12. No. 1318, southern part of Row 1. The left foot and distal part of the left tibia displaced and positioned lateral to the left tibia diaphysis. Fig. 13. Detail of the left foot of no. 1318, positioned between the left tibia and the right tibia of no. 1392.
Fig. 12. No. 1318, southern part of Row 1. The left foot and distal part of the left tibia displaced and positioned lateral to the left tibia diaphysis. Fig. 13. Detail of the left foot of no. 1318, positioned between the left tibia and the right tibia of no. 1392.
Fig. 14. No. 1393: left foot articulated but displaced, found between the lower legs of the individual.
Fig. 14. No. 1393: left foot articulated but displaced, found between the lower legs of the individual.
Table 3. Individuals with shackles and associated finds. (Y = yes; N = no.)
Table 3. Individuals with shackles and associated finds. (Y = yes; N = no.)
Table 3, continued. Table 4. Associated skeletal elements in Row 1.
Table 3, continued. Table 4. Associated skeletal elements in Row 1.
Fig. 17. Nos. 1392 and 1393, Oinochoe.
Fig. 17. Nos. 1392 and 1393, Oinochoe.
Fig. 20. No. 1344, knife found medial to the left tibia. Fig. 18. No. 1267, finger ring.
Fig. 20. No. 1344, knife found medial to the left tibia. Fig. 18. No. 1267, finger ring.
Fig. 22. No. 1272, arrowhead after conservation. Fig. 21. No. 1272, arrowhead.
Fig. 22. No. 1272, arrowhead after conservation. Fig. 21. No. 1272, arrowhead.
Fig. 19. No. 1228, finger ring.
Fig. 19. No. 1228, finger ring.
Fig. 25. Colour differences on skeletons in Row 3. Fig. 23. No. 1392, right femur, postmortem breakage with brownish- black discolouration. Fig. 24. No. 1296, left tibia with possible animal gnawing, puncturing, and postmortem destruction.
Fig. 25. Colour differences on skeletons in Row 3. Fig. 23. No. 1392, right femur, postmortem breakage with brownish- black discolouration. Fig. 24. No. 1296, left tibia with possible animal gnawing, puncturing, and postmortem destruction.
Table 6. Puncture marks (YA = young adult; MA = Middle adult).
Table 6. Puncture marks (YA = young adult; MA = Middle adult).
Fig. 28. No. 1349, puncture mark, right mandible. Fig. 26. No. 1343, puncture mark, right parietal.
Fig. 28. No. 1349, puncture mark, right mandible. Fig. 26. No. 1343, puncture mark, right parietal.
Fig. 30. No. 1269, puncture mark, left temporal.
Fig. 30. No. 1269, puncture mark, left temporal.
Fig 31. No. 1269, close up of puncture mark, the left temporal. Fig. 29. No. 1349, close up of puncture mark, right mandible.
Fig 31. No. 1269, close up of puncture mark, the left temporal. Fig. 29. No. 1349, close up of puncture mark, right mandible.
Fig. 27. No. 1343, puncture mark, right temporal.
Fig. 27. No. 1343, puncture mark, right temporal.
Table 10. Sex distribution (n = individuals). Table 11. Post-cranial measurements indicative of sex (mm).
Table 10. Sex distribution (n = individuals). Table 11. Post-cranial measurements indicative of sex (mm).
Table 13b continued.
Table 13b continued.
Table 14. Age distribution.
Table 14. Age distribution.
Table 16a. Oral status, mandible (A = absent; U = unobservable; P = present; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; AM = antemortem; Peri = perimortem; PM = postmortem).
Table 16a. Oral status, mandible (A = absent; U = unobservable; P = present; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; AM = antemortem; Peri = perimortem; PM = postmortem).
Table 166 continued. Table 17. Summary of dental pathologies, fractures, and discolouration.
Table 166 continued. Table 17. Summary of dental pathologies, fractures, and discolouration.
Table 18. Dental pathologies and discolouration (LEH = linear enamel hypoplasia; PD = periodontal disease ; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; CE] = cementoenamel junction).
Table 18. Dental pathologies and discolouration (LEH = linear enamel hypoplasia; PD = periodontal disease ; AMTL = antemortem tooth loss; CE] = cementoenamel junction).
Table 19. Measurements of limb bones (mm; blank = unobservable).
Table 19. Measurements of limb bones (mm; blank = unobservable).
Table 20. Mean stature (n = individuals). Table 21. Paleopathology (U = unobservable).
Table 20. Mean stature (n = individuals). Table 21. Paleopathology (U = unobservable).
Table 22. Paleopathology (n = number of individuals; OA = osteoarthritis). Fig. 32. No. 1355, expanded diploé, right parietal.
Table 22. Paleopathology (n = number of individuals; OA = osteoarthritis). Fig. 32. No. 1355, expanded diploé, right parietal.
Fig. 33. No. 1340, porosities, left parietal, left occipital.
Fig. 33. No. 1340, porosities, left parietal, left occipital.
NONMETRIC TRAITS Table 23. Nonmetric traits (n = number of traits recorded). individual could be determined only as “adult”, whereas three individuals were estimated as middle adults (MA). One indi- vidual (no. 1266), a young adult male in Row 1, shows OA on the medial epiphysis of the left clavicle.
NONMETRIC TRAITS Table 23. Nonmetric traits (n = number of traits recorded). individual could be determined only as “adult”, whereas three individuals were estimated as middle adults (MA). One indi- vidual (no. 1266), a young adult male in Row 1, shows OA on the medial epiphysis of the left clavicle.
Fig. 36. No. 1269, Allen’ fossa. Fig. 34. No. 1389, wormian bones.
Fig. 36. No. 1269, Allen’ fossa. Fig. 34. No. 1389, wormian bones.
Fig. 35. No. 1344, enlarged parietal foramina.
Fig. 35. No. 1344, enlarged parietal foramina.
Fig. 37. No. 1297, antemortem trauma to the left parietal.
Fig. 37. No. 1297, antemortem trauma to the left parietal.
Table 24. Description of fractures. Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) and possible perimortem fracture (PPF) (BFT = blunt force trauma; HBL = the so-called rule of the “hat brim line’, see below, p. 73).
Table 24. Description of fractures. Likely perimortem fracture (LPF) and possible perimortem fracture (PPF) (BFT = blunt force trauma; HBL = the so-called rule of the “hat brim line’, see below, p. 73).
Fig. 38. No. 1296, LPE left mandible. Fig. 39. No. 1336, LPE right temporal and right mandible.
Fig. 38. No. 1296, LPE left mandible. Fig. 39. No. 1336, LPE right temporal and right mandible.
Fig. 41. No. 1356, LPE, right temporal, right sphenoid, right mandible. Fig. 40. No. 1353, LPE right parietal, right zygomatic, right frontal.
Fig. 41. No. 1356, LPE, right temporal, right sphenoid, right mandible. Fig. 40. No. 1353, LPE right parietal, right zygomatic, right frontal.
Fig. 42. No. 1359, LPE right temporal, left mandible.
Fig. 42. No. 1359, LPE right temporal, left mandible.
Fig. 45. No. 1383, LPE, right temporal, righ sphenoid, left frontal, right maxilla, and left mandible. Fig. 44. No. 1374, LPE, right mandible.
Fig. 45. No. 1383, LPE, right temporal, righ sphenoid, left frontal, right maxilla, and left mandible. Fig. 44. No. 1374, LPE, right mandible.
Fig. 46. No. 1390, LPE, right mandible. Fig. 43. No. 1373, LPE, right temporal, right sphenoid.
Fig. 46. No. 1390, LPE, right mandible. Fig. 43. No. 1373, LPE, right temporal, right sphenoid.
Fig 50. No. 1316, LPE left parietal, left temporal, left sphenoid. Fig. 47. No. 1269, LPE left mandible. Fig. 48. No. 1386, LPF, right mandible. tively fresh or moist. However, Alan Richard Moritz noted that if the head was immobilized, ie., resting on the ground a blow would result in a comminuted fracture with inward displace- ment on the cranium.” This type of fractures was noted in nine individuals (nos. 1359, 1336, 1373, 1353, 1383, 1356, 1272, 1316, and 1339—Row 3), which makes blows to the head on individuals lying down possible. Another likely scenario is that some of the individuals were executed at site when kneeling
Fig 50. No. 1316, LPE left parietal, left temporal, left sphenoid. Fig. 47. No. 1269, LPE left mandible. Fig. 48. No. 1386, LPF, right mandible. tively fresh or moist. However, Alan Richard Moritz noted that if the head was immobilized, ie., resting on the ground a blow would result in a comminuted fracture with inward displace- ment on the cranium.” This type of fractures was noted in nine individuals (nos. 1359, 1336, 1373, 1353, 1383, 1356, 1272, 1316, and 1339—Row 3), which makes blows to the head on individuals lying down possible. Another likely scenario is that some of the individuals were executed at site when kneeling
Fig. 49. No. 1272, LPE right parietal.
Fig. 49. No. 1272, LPE right parietal.
Fig. 51. No. 1333, LPE left frontal.
Fig. 51. No. 1333, LPE left frontal.
Fig. 54. No. 1348, PPE, left mandible. Fig. 53. No. 1328, PPE, right parietal, right temporal, right sphenoid, right mandible.
Fig. 54. No. 1348, PPE, left mandible. Fig. 53. No. 1328, PPE, right parietal, right temporal, right sphenoid, right mandible.
Fig. 52. No. 1324, PPE, left mandible, left temporal.
Fig. 52. No. 1324, PPE, left mandible, left temporal.
Fig. 56. No. 1349, PPE, right temporal.
Fig. 56. No. 1349, PPE, right temporal.
Fig. 61. No. 1363, PPE, right temporal. Fig. 59. No. 1353, PPE, left femur.
Fig. 61. No. 1363, PPE, right temporal. Fig. 59. No. 1353, PPE, left femur.
Fig. 57. No. 1349, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 57. No. 1349, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 60. No. 1361, PPE, right temporal. Fig. 58. No. 1353, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 60. No. 1361, PPE, right temporal. Fig. 58. No. 1353, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 62. No. 1365, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 62. No. 1365, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 65. No. 1374, PPE, right temporal, left mandible. Fig. 63. No. 1364, PPE, right temporal, right mandible.
Fig. 65. No. 1374, PPE, right temporal, left mandible. Fig. 63. No. 1364, PPE, right temporal, right mandible.
Fig. 67. No. 1380, PPF, right temporal.
Fig. 67. No. 1380, PPF, right temporal.
Fig. 64. No. 1366, PPE, right sphenoid.
Fig. 64. No. 1366, PPE, right sphenoid.
Fig. 66. No. 1375, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 66. No. 1375, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 68. No. 1381, PPE, right temporal.
Fig. 68. No. 1381, PPE, right temporal.
Fig. 73. No. 1389, PPE, right temporal, right mandible. Fig. 71. No. 1267, PPE, left temporal.
Fig. 73. No. 1389, PPE, right temporal, right mandible. Fig. 71. No. 1267, PPE, left temporal.
Fig. 69. No. 1383, PPF, right femur. Fig. 70. No. 1390, PPE, right second metacarpal and right third metacarpal.
Fig. 69. No. 1383, PPF, right femur. Fig. 70. No. 1390, PPE, right second metacarpal and right third metacarpal.
Fig. 72. No. 1267, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 72. No. 1267, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 74. No. 1369, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 74. No. 1369, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 75. No. 1357, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 75. No. 1357, PPE, left mandible.
Fig. 77. No. 1388, PPE, right temporal, right mandible.
Fig. 77. No. 1388, PPE, right temporal, right mandible.
Fig. 76. No. 1387, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 76. No. 1387, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 79. No. 1271, PPE, right temporal, right zygomatic, right parietal, right frontal.
Fig. 79. No. 1271, PPE, right temporal, right zygomatic, right parietal, right frontal.
Fig. 80. No. 1333, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 80. No. 1333, PPE, right mandible.
Fig. 81. Skeletons, Row 1.
Fig. 81. Skeletons, Row 1.
For information regarding the data re- corded in this appendix, see above, un- der the heading “Methods”. DESCRIPTION
For information regarding the data re- corded in this appendix, see above, un- der the heading “Methods”. DESCRIPTION
The skeleton is placed in a supine po- sition in an E-W direction (cranium to the E). Visceral cranium smashed, mandible missing. Most parts of the
The skeleton is placed in a supine po- sition in an E-W direction (cranium to the E). Visceral cranium smashed, mandible missing. Most parts of the
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Fig. 82. Skeleton no. 1201. Fig. 83. Skeleton no. 1202.
Fig. 82. Skeleton no. 1201. Fig. 83. Skeleton no. 1202.
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure
Fig. 85. Skeleton no. 1245. Fig. 84. Skeleton no. 1215. Epiphyses
Fig. 85. Skeleton no. 1245. Fig. 84. Skeleton no. 1215. Epiphyses
SKELETON NO. 1245—ROW | (FIG. 85)
SKELETON NO. 1245—ROW | (FIG. 85)
Estimate of age at death: Adult? Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Estimate of age at death: Adult? Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Fig. 86. Individual no. 1247. Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 86. Individual no. 1247. Suture closure (ectocranial)
Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Fig. 87. Skeleton no. 1253. Fig. 88. Skeleton no. 1266.
Fig. 87. Skeleton no. 1253. Fig. 88. Skeleton no. 1266.
Fig. 90. Skeleton no. 1289. Fig. 89. Skeleton no. 1281.
Fig. 90. Skeleton no. 1289. Fig. 89. Skeleton no. 1281.
SKELETON NO. 1289—ROW | (FIG. 90)
SKELETON NO. 1289—ROW | (FIG. 90)
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
‘The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E-W direction (cranium to the E), with wrists in shackles, above the head. The skull is inclined on the right side. Left leg is crossed over the right leg. Left foot is displaced between the two tibiae. The skeleton is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present. Around 1/3-2/3 of the bones have a pronounced degree of erosion on the surfaces and are fragmented. Quantitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 2
‘The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E-W direction (cranium to the E), with wrists in shackles, above the head. The skull is inclined on the right side. Left leg is crossed over the right leg. Left foot is displaced between the two tibiae. The skeleton is almost complete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present. Around 1/3-2/3 of the bones have a pronounced degree of erosion on the surfaces and are fragmented. Quantitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 2
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption Ts fF | Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption Ts fF | Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 92. Skeleton no. 1297. Fig. 91. Skeleton no. 1296.
Fig. 92. Skeleton no. 1297. Fig. 91. Skeleton no. 1296.
Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis
Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis
Fig. 93. Skeleton no. 1318.. Fig. 94. Skeleton no. 1324.
Fig. 93. Skeleton no. 1318.. Fig. 94. Skeleton no. 1324.
Epiphyses interment of skeleton no. 1556. Only legs, feet, the pelvic girdle, the lower part of the lumbar spine, lower arms, and hands are present. Cranium and trunk are missing. The left foot is displaced be- side the left fibula. Some dispersed bones are found near to this skeleton; an ulna and some phalanges of the hand. Less than 1/3 of the skeleton is preserved, and the quality of the bones is poor, but the bones present are well preserved. Quantitative preservation: 1 Qualitative preservation: 3 Position Skeleton: Supine Cranium: Missing Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper limb—probably flexed, Skeleton no. 1336 is placed over the trunk of this skeleton (probably the rea- son for the disturbances?) re OU
Epiphyses interment of skeleton no. 1556. Only legs, feet, the pelvic girdle, the lower part of the lumbar spine, lower arms, and hands are present. Cranium and trunk are missing. The left foot is displaced be- side the left fibula. Some dispersed bones are found near to this skeleton; an ulna and some phalanges of the hand. Less than 1/3 of the skeleton is preserved, and the quality of the bones is poor, but the bones present are well preserved. Quantitative preservation: 1 Qualitative preservation: 3 Position Skeleton: Supine Cranium: Missing Limbs: Left upper limb—flexed, Left hand—U, Left lower limb—flexed, Right upper limb—probably flexed, Skeleton no. 1336 is placed over the trunk of this skeleton (probably the rea- son for the disturbances?) re OU
LSM ALE Of aXe Al AeALN: AAULL Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Suture closure (ectocranial)
LSM ALE Of aXe Al AeALN: AAULL Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 95. Skeleton no. 1325. Fig. 96. Skeleton no. 1328.
Fig. 95. Skeleton no. 1325. Fig. 96. Skeleton no. 1328.
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 97. Skeleton no. 1336. Fig. 98. Skeleton no. 1339.
Fig. 97. Skeleton no. 1336. Fig. 98. Skeleton no. 1339.
Pelvis Skull
Pelvis Skull
Skull Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, anc tooth wear awe a
Skull Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, anc tooth wear awe a
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Fig. 100. Skeleton no. 1342. Fig. 99. Skeleton no. 1340.
Fig. 100. Skeleton no. 1342. Fig. 99. Skeleton no. 1340.
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement
Fig. 101. Skeleton no. 1343. Fig. 102. Skeleton no. 1348. Skull
Fig. 101. Skeleton no. 1343. Fig. 102. Skeleton no. 1348. Skull
Pelvis
Pelvis
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 103. Skeleton no. 1349. Fig. 104. Skeleton no. 1350.
Fig. 103. Skeleton no. 1349. Fig. 104. Skeleton no. 1350.
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Pe eee eee
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Pe eee eee
Fig. 106. Skeleton no. 1354. Fig. 105. Skeleton no. 1353.
Fig. 106. Skeleton no. 1354. Fig. 105. Skeleton no. 1353.
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear y Pee Peres
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear y Pee Peres
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption Shackles: No according to diary/hands folded on the back according to field ob- servation Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption Shackles: No according to diary/hands folded on the back according to field ob- servation Suture closure (ectocranial)
Pelvis Skull
Pelvis Skull
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, anc tooth eruption yr. 7
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, anc tooth eruption yr. 7
Fig. 107. Skeleton no. 1355. Fig. 108. Skeleton no. 1356.
Fig. 107. Skeleton no. 1355. Fig. 108. Skeleton no. 1356.
Suture closure (ectocranial) Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear
Suture closure (ectocranial) Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear
Epiphyses Pelvis
Epiphyses Pelvis
Fig. 110. Skeleton no. 1359. Fig. 109. Skeleton no. 1358.
Fig. 110. Skeleton no. 1359. Fig. 109. Skeleton no. 1358.
Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption
Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption
Relation to other skeletons Left pectoral girdle below the left elbow of skeleton no. 1381; the right femur be- low the right femur of skeleton no. 1358; left lower leg below the right leg of skel- eton no. 1381
Relation to other skeletons Left pectoral girdle below the left elbow of skeleton no. 1381; the right femur be- low the right femur of skeleton no. 1358; left lower leg below the right leg of skel- eton no. 1381
46 cm (femur dx, maximum head)
46 cm (femur dx, maximum head)
Lstimate of age at deat: MIAaLe AAULL Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pubic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Enpiphvyses
Lstimate of age at deat: MIAaLe AAULL Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pubic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Enpiphvyses
Fig. 111. Skeleton no. 1360.
Fig. 111. Skeleton no. 1360.
Fig. 112. Skeleton no. 1361.
Fig. 112. Skeleton no. 1361.
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear meewd
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear meewd
Skull
Skull
Fig. 113. Skeleton no. 1363.
Fig. 113. Skeleton no. 1363.
Fig 114. Skeleton no. 1364.
Fig 114. Skeleton no. 1364.
Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, and tooth eruption
Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, and tooth eruption
Fig. 115. Skeleton no. 1365. Fig. 116. Skeleton no. 1366. Epiphyses
Fig. 115. Skeleton no. 1365. Fig. 116. Skeleton no. 1366. Epiphyses
The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E-W direction (cranium to the E). Right humerus is stretched above the head, but no shackle was found. The right arm (humerus, ulna, and ra- dius), and hand is missing, as well as the right fibula. Some bones from the hand (MCII-V, and some carpals), anda right pelvis (male) that does not belong to this individual, were found beside the right shoulder. The skeleton is almost com- plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and they are well preserved. Quantitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 3 Position CLeletan: Guanine
The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E-W direction (cranium to the E). Right humerus is stretched above the head, but no shackle was found. The right arm (humerus, ulna, and ra- dius), and hand is missing, as well as the right fibula. Some bones from the hand (MCII-V, and some carpals), anda right pelvis (male) that does not belong to this individual, were found beside the right shoulder. The skeleton is almost com- plete; more than 2/3 of the skeletal parts are present, and they are well preserved. Quantitative preservation: 3 Qualitative preservation: 3 Position CLeletan: Guanine
Fig. 117. Skeleton no. 1373. Fig. 118. Skeleton no. 1374. Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 117. Skeleton no. 1373. Fig. 118. Skeleton no. 1374. Suture closure (ectocranial)
Position
Position
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 119. Skeleton no. 1375. Fig. 120. Skeleton 1376.
Fig. 119. Skeleton no. 1375. Fig. 120. Skeleton 1376.
SKELETON NO. 1376—ROW | (FIG. 120)
SKELETON NO. 1376—ROW | (FIG. 120)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Suture closure (ectocranial) Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: X
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Suture closure (ectocranial) Stature: 161.37 cm (femur dx) Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: X
Fig. 121. Skeleton no. 1379. Fig. 122. Skeleton no. 1380.
Fig. 121. Skeleton no. 1379. Fig. 122. Skeleton no. 1380.
Epiphyses Skull Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption
Epiphyses Skull Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption
Skull Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear
Skull Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pu- bic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear
Fig. 123. Skeleton no. 1381. Fig. 124. Skeleton no. 1382.
Fig. 123. Skeleton no. 1381. Fig. 124. Skeleton no. 1382.
Pelvis
Pelvis
Lstimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pubic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Epiphyses
Lstimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, pubic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Epiphyses
The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E-W direction (cranium to
The skeleton is placed in a supine posi- tion in an E-W direction (cranium to
Fig. 125. Skeleton no. 1383. Fig. 126. Skeleton no. 1390.
Fig. 125. Skeleton no. 1383. Fig. 126. Skeleton no. 1390.
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 127. Skeleton no. 1392. Only lumbar vertebrae, legs, and feet are present; placed in a supine position in an E-W direction (cranium should be to the E). The left foot is displaced between the lower legs. Less than 1/3 of the skel- eton is preserved, and the quality of the bones is good and the bones present are well preserved.
Fig. 127. Skeleton no. 1392. Only lumbar vertebrae, legs, and feet are present; placed in a supine position in an E-W direction (cranium should be to the E). The left foot is displaced between the lower legs. Less than 1/3 of the skel- eton is preserved, and the quality of the bones is good and the bones present are well preserved.
Fig. 129. Skeleton no. 1228.
Fig. 129. Skeleton no. 1228.
Fig. 130. Skeleton no. 1267.
Fig. 130. Skeleton no. 1267.
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear aay erenreen
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear aay erenreen
Skull Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses and suture closure Epiphyses
Skull Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses and suture closure Epiphyses
Fig. 131. Skeleton no. 1268.
Fig. 131. Skeleton no. 1268.
Fig. 132. Skeleton no. 1269.
Fig. 132. Skeleton no. 1269.
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Pelvis
Pelvis
Suture closure (ectocranial) Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial) Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Finds
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses Finds
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Fig. 133. Skeleton no. 1298.
Fig. 133. Skeleton no. 1298.
Fig. 134. Skeleton no. 1351.
Fig. 134. Skeleton no. 1351.
Fig. 135. Skeleton no. 1357. Fig. 136. Skeleton no. 1368.
Fig. 135. Skeleton no. 1357. Fig. 136. Skeleton no. 1368.
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear meee)
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear meee)
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Ye a See
Estimate of age at death: Middle adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Ye a See
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Stature: 162.85 cm (humerus dx) Pathology/Trauma
Stature: 162.85 cm (humerus dx) Pathology/Trauma
Fig. 137. Skeleton no. 1369. Fig. 138. Skeleton no. 1370.
Fig. 137. Skeleton no. 1369. Fig. 138. Skeleton no. 1370.
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Se A Suture closure (ectocranial)
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Se A Suture closure (ectocranial)
Fig. 139. Skeleton no. 1371. Fig. 140. Skeleton no. 1386.
Fig. 139. Skeleton no. 1371. Fig. 140. Skeleton no. 1386.
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption we ae o
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption we ae o
Fig. 141. Skeleton no. 1387.
Fig. 141. Skeleton no. 1387.
Fig. 142. Skeleton no. 1388.
Fig. 142. Skeleton no. 1388.
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption Epiphyses
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption Epiphyses
Pelvis
Pelvis
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx)
Stature: 158.99 cm (femur dx)
Fig. 143. Skeleton no. 1389.
Fig. 143. Skeleton no. 1389.
Fig. 144. Skeleton no. 1397.
Fig. 144. Skeleton no. 1397.
Estimate of sex: Undeterminea Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Skull
Estimate of sex: Undeterminea Criteria: Skull, and pelvis Skull
Suture closure (ectocranial) Fig. 145. Skeletons, Row 3.
Suture closure (ectocranial) Fig. 145. Skeletons, Row 3.
Fig. 146. Skeleton 1271.
Fig. 146. Skeleton 1271.
Fig. 147. Skeleton no. 1272.
Fig. 147. Skeleton no. 1272.
Estimate of sex: Undetermined Criteria: Skull cCL.,//] Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruptior
Estimate of sex: Undetermined Criteria: Skull cCL.,//] Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruptior
Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Suture closure, tooth eruptior and tooth wear Capmperlnaiwe (ortnrraini al)
Estimate of age at death: Juvenile Criteria: Suture closure, tooth eruptior and tooth wear Capmperlnaiwe (ortnrraini al)
Fig. 148. Skeleton no. 1275.
Fig. 148. Skeleton no. 1275.
Fig. 149. Skeleton no. 1276.
Fig. 149. Skeleton no. 1276.
Pelvis Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis Epiphyses
Pelvis Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and pubic symphysis Epiphyses
Fig. 150. Skeleton no. 1277. Fig. 151. Skeleton no. 1288.
Fig. 150. Skeleton no. 1277. Fig. 151. Skeleton no. 1288.
Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Stature: 163.75 cm (femur sin) Pathology/Trauma Antemortem trauma: U Likely perimortem trauma: U Possible perimortem trauma: U
Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption Epiphyses
Criteria: Epiphyses, and tooth eruption Epiphyses
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption
Fig. 152. Skeleton no. 1294. Fig. 153. Skeleton no. 1316.
Fig. 152. Skeleton no. 1294. Fig. 153. Skeleton no. 1316.
Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth wear en |
Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth wear en |
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, pubic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Enpniphvses
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, pubic symphysis, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Enpniphvses
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption — ee |
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption — ee |
Fig. 154. Skeleton no. 1332. Fig. 155. Skeleton no. 1333.
Fig. 154. Skeleton no. 1332. Fig. 155. Skeleton no. 1333.
Pelvis Skull
Pelvis Skull
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Estimate of age at death: Adult Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Fig. 156. Skeleton no. 1344.
Fig. 156. Skeleton no. 1344.
Fig. 157. Skeleton no. 1384.
Fig. 157. Skeleton no. 1384.
Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Shackles: Yes—wrists. Possibly left arm tied with left arm of skeleton no. 1384, same clamp?
Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, tooth eruption, and tooth wear Shackles: Yes—wrists. Possibly left arm tied with left arm of skeleton no. 1384, same clamp?
Fig. 158. Skeleton no. 1385.
Fig. 158. Skeleton no. 1385.
Fig 159. Skeleton no. 1398.
Fig 159. Skeleton no. 1398.
Pelvis
Pelvis
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption So ee 2
Estimate of age at death: Young adult Criteria: Epiphyses, suture closure, and tooth eruption So ee 2
Fig. 160. Skeleton no. 1399. Fig. 161. Skeleton no. 1400.
Fig. 160. Skeleton no. 1399. Fig. 161. Skeleton no. 1400.
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Criteria: Skull, pelvis, and measurement Skull
Pelvis
Pelvis
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Suture closure (ectocranial)
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Criteria: Epiphyses, and suture closure Epiphyses
Table 26 continued.
Table 26 continued.

Key takeaways

  • After death, however, the skeleton continues to change due to cultural or natural processes following postmortem handling of the body and the burial environment.
  • Since the skeletons in situ were not fully exposed, interpretations regarding perimortem contra postmortem fractures are tentative and in most cases based on fracture patterns: only rarely were fracture margins possible to observe.
  • In Row 1, five individuals exhibited cranium fractures as well as fractures to the mandible, two individuals in Row 2 exhibited both cranium and mandible fractures, while there were none in Row 3.
  • The preserved skeleton consists mainly of the torso (fragmented and the major part of the spinal column missing), and a smashed cranium; most parts of the left side of the body are missing, as well as the lower parts of the arms and legs on the right side.
  • The upper part of the skeleton is placed in a supine position in a N-S direction (cranium to the N), and the lower part in a lateral position (on the right side) in an E-W direction between skeletons nos.

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Honouring the Dead off-Stage: A Case of Tomb Cult South of Grave Circle B, Mycenae, by Eleni Konstantinidi-Syvridi and Constantinos Paschalidis, with a Contribution by Argyro Nafplioti
Kostas Paschalidis

Honouring the Dead in the Peloponnese Proceedings of the conference held in Sparta 23-35 April 2009. Edited by Helen Cavanagh, William Cavanagh and James Roy. CSPS Online Publication 2 prepared by Sam Farnham., 2011

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