Ancient Near East

The use of Greek and the Parthian kings’ title, essential in the political propaganda of the Arsacid monarchy, are interpreted as expressions of the autonomy of the Parthian princes, who used them, when these were deployed, to reinforce their self-affirmation as members of the Arsacid royal family and as people from the East. Meanwhile, the use of Latin and familiar Roman names, the formal elements of some inscriptions, the type of tomb on which they appeared and the dedication in a very important temple within Roman religious identity are all factors aimed at projecting an image of affiliation to the Parthian princes’ sociocultural group, the Roman high social class, and eliciting recognition in terms of
esteem.

This is interesting in the context of the transition of kingdoms from the Rigvedic period (3500-1500 BCE) to the period of the Mahājanapadas (before and around the time of the Buddha, 600 BCE). As per google: "Mahajanapadas were sixteen powerful kingdoms and republics that emerged in ancient India around the 6th century BCE, marking a transition from tribal societies to organized states, and playing a crucial role in shaping the political, economic, and cultural landscape of the region."

(full open access book)
While the study of Assyria as ‘the world’s first empire’ has never been more popular, the events of the foundational early Neo-Assyrian period (935–745 BC) remain only poorly understood and explained. This book re-examines the historical question of Assyria’s expansion, presenting a novel reconstruction of the early Neo-Assyrian period with the latest data (including new Assyrian kings), detailed regional studies synthesising the newest historical and archaeological findings, and interpretative essays outlining new historical factors.

The resultant history is unprecedentedly complex, containing newly discovered succession conflicts, difficult compromises with neighbouring powers, local dynasties appointed to Assyrian governorships, self-serving high officials, and sudden reverses in policy. In place of circular structuralist arguments for the Neo-Assyrian expansion, it presents a new model emphasising internal political conflict, and competing visions for Assyria’s future. This book is intended for historians and archaeologists of Assyria, for whom it will provide a new basis for research, and also for scholars of neighbouring disciplines and laypersons interested in what happens to an ancient state before it becomes an empire.

Eine große Anzahl afrikanischer (ägyptischer, kuschitischer, libyscher) Einzelpersonen und Gruppen wird in Keilschrifttexten aus der Spätbronzezeit des Alten Orients (ca. 1600–1150 v. Chr.) erwähnt, insbesondere in den Archiven der Städte Achetaton, Hattusa, und Ugarit. Diese Studie untersucht die Belege sowohl aus individuell-biografischer als auch aus kollektiv-demografischer Sicht und Perspektive, ausgehend von der Identifizierung von Afrikanern auf der Grundlage von Etymologie/Onomastik, Ethnonymen, familiären Bindungen und institutionellen Zugehörigkeiten. Im Fokus stehen Themen der Integration und Assimilation und der direkten Kontakte zwischen Ägypten und Mesopotamien. Ergänzt wird die Studie durch Vergleiche der Zeugnisse aus der Spätbronzezeit mit den entsprechenden Zeugnissen aus dem neuassyrischen und neu- und spätbabylonischen 1. Jahrtausend v.Chr.

Excavations carried out between 2016 and 2022 on the main mound (Mound A) of Tell Zurghul/Nigin, in Areas D and E, have revealed a long occupational sequence of the site during a large part of the third millennium B.C.E. The identification of three main phases of use of the area, which are in turn divided into five Architectural Phases, shows that the mound was utilized in different ways between the late Early Dynastic I period and the end of the third millennium B.C.E. The sequence allows the various phases of use to be associated with specific periods in the life of the settlement, coinciding with the rulers of the First Dynasty of Lagash and Gudea’s works on the site. The chrono-typological analysis of the pottery repertoire from Areas D and E has established dating for the materials recovered and provides additional information useful for a general reassessment of the ceramic chronology of third millennium B.C.E. Mesopotamia. Materials from Architectural Phases I and II are assigned at the ceramic level to the late Akkadian/post-Akkadian/early Ur III horizon. Pottery from Architectural Phases III and IV are assigned, respectively, to the ED IIIB/early Akkadian and the ED IIIA–B horizons, while materials from Architectural Phase V are assigned to a late ED I/transitional ED I–ED IIIA horizon.

Pitṛmēdha (ಪಿತೃಮೇಧ) yajna-मे ध 'yajna, mēdhā 'dhanam' मे धा 'धन' (नै घण्टु क , commented on by यास्क, ii,10)-offering of perforated vessels principal instruments used by Pitr in their yajna-रत्नधातमं-yielding wealth for maritime trade (cf. Top, bottom registers Bactria silver vase) Perforated jars used in calcination of metal ingots collected in a basketcf. comparable images from Warka vase शतातृ ण्ण śatātṛṇṇā (ā), f. a jar or vessel having a hundred holes, ŚBr.; Vait.

Fr. Dreisbach was head of the Atlanta International Center for  Continuing Study and Exhibit of the Shroud of Turin, Inc.  Emanuela Marinelli is a well-known Italian sindonologist.  The latter sent a letter to Dreisbach asking for additional details about a putative secret C-14 test performed on the Shroud in 1982.  More details about this test can be found in my article, “Have There Been Multiple Secret C-14 Tests on the Shroud of Turin?” 
    Dreisbach suggested to Marinelli that one of the most plausible explanations for the medieval dating of the Shroud was that the sample tested might have been rewoven.  My late wife, Sue Benford, and I made a presentation in Orvieto, Italy in 2000 developing that idea.  I have continued to develop it over the years.  See the most recent version of my current presentation titled, “FURTHER EMPIRICAL DATA INDICATING REPAIRS IN THE C-14 SAMPLE AREA OF THE SHROUD OF TURIN.”

Reading Ezra 1-6 for its historiographic properties indicates: a) that the text deliberately manipulates readers' chronological expectations to antedate stages of the rebuilding of the Jerusalem Temple; b) that it does so in line with canons of ancient Near Eastern and Greek historiography, such that readers who know their history will have no difficulty in following it, but those who do not will be misled; that its most instructive functional parallels lie in the inscriptional corpus of Nabonidus; c) that it shares techniques in creating chronological ambiguity with I Esdras, and with Samuel-Kings, against Chronicles, confirming Japhet's position on their separate authorship; and, that it most likely draws on a source from the time of the 2nd Temple's dedication in 515.

This chapter focuses on approaches to mobility control in early Mesopotamia (c. 3200-1595 BC), which requires consideration of attestations across several historical periods. This chapter's systematic approach discusses attestations and changes in practices for each period by clearly demarcating the period from which the material is drawn. The aim of these measures was not immobility, but rather controlled mobility. It is concluded that while many of the practices related to mobility control can be connected to the control of animals, some of the measures would not make sense unless humanity was also being acknowledged in some sense.

Join us for a panel discussion of Andrew Danielson's new book "Edom in Judah: Trade, Migration, and Kinship in the Late Iron Age Southern Levant" (Cambridge University Press, 2024), 5pm–7pm EST, May 5, 2025, Plimpton Room, Barker Center, Harvard University. Panelists include Andrea Berlin, Andrew Danielson, Céline Debourse, Julia Rhyder, and Jason Ur. All are welcome!

Why did humans begin to cultivate and domesticate plants? This question is more obscure than ever today. Regarding the Near East, from which the first civilizations of the past emerged, discoveries in molecular biology and archaeology challenge utilitarian explanations that consider food security or the control of seed production as the main driving force. Also the idea of a revolution in symbols and beliefs as a stimulus for cultivation unfits the most recent discoveries. With this in mind, this book investigates the period of few millennia preceding the completion of domestication, from the beginning of the Natufian period. It shows that traces of the first cultivation experiments of annual plants interfere with an unusual relationship with death revealed by new mortuary rites and their symbolism. It shows also how polyamines, a family of compounds released from flesh decomposition, interferes with plant development, inducing most of the transformations characterizing the plant domestication process in the Near East. A scenario of plant domestication arises from the combination of data from archaeology, plant development, epigenetics, genome sequencing, anthropology of ancient beliefs. This representation of domestication finds surprising support in the mythologies of the Near East, Egypt, and ancient Greece. This parallel confirms how the process of domestication in the Near East radically changed our way of being. From a guest among the living, man has positioned himself at the heart of a universe articulated around the control of his universe, the heart of the civilizing impulse fuelling humanity to this day.

No meaningful relationship was found between sex, marital status, parenthood status, living arrangement, health insurance situation, health personnel availability, positive family history of cardiac disease, co-existence of another disease, difficulty in providing of the drugs, side effects of the drugs, physical condition and attitude and medication compliance. In conclusion, by providing some educational programs about drug regimens, based on the level of cognition, experiences, capabilities, and also the living style of the patients, medication compliance can be improved.

merge) in the corresponding derivations. Such movement differences will in turn be related, under a familiar view, to differences in the properties of functional heads. 2 A strong position, but one that is not central to what follows and that I will not pursue here, would be: 3 (1) Movement differences exhaust the universe both of word order differences and of morpheme order differences. Let us take OV as a test case. Antisymmetry as in AS has the following immediate consequence: (2) OV can never be associated with a structure in which O is sitting in the complement position of V. 4 It seems completely clear and undeniable that there exist languages or subparts of languages in which OV-order is produced by movement. It is hard to see how anybody could disagree with that, if it is stated as an existential. One easy example in English would be: (3) They're having their car washed. in which object their car comes to precede via movement (of the sort found in passives) the verb wash that it is the object of. Even more telling are examples of OV order involving movement of O where OV order is 'canonical' or 'neutral', 5 i.e. does not involve what one might think of as 'special' movements like the one found in (3). One such type of case is found in languages of a sort studied by Dryer (1992), with SONegV as a possible canonical order (as in Korean). As argued by , on the assumption that Neg is merged outside VP, and therefore above O, the pre-Neg position of O in SONegV sentences must have been produced by movement. 6 In a SONegV sentence, O can clearly not be occupying the complement position of the pronounced V. Whitman argues more specifically that SONegV is produced by remnant VP-movement. The verb moves out of the VP by head movement; subsequently the entire (verbless) VP containing O moves past Neg, much as in Nkemnji's (1992; 1995) analysis of one word order pattern in Nweh. 7 A similar argument in favor of remnant movement carrying an object to the left of V is made by Baker (2005) for Lokạạ. One such case in Lokạạ is that of SONegV, matching Whitman, but Baker's 2 See, for example, Borer (1984, 29). 3 Cf. Cinque (1999). 4 More specifically this follows from the claim in AS and in Kayne (2003a) that specifier, head and complement are always found in the order S-H-C. (In bare phrase structure, this translates into the order 'second-mergedphrase H first-merged phrase'.) A number of authors have jumped from S-H-C to SVO. This follows only if what we call objects are invariably complements of their verbs, which is certainly not always the case -see Kayne (1981a) and Larson (1988). 5 Erdocia et al. (2009) argue that canonical SOV order in Basque is processed faster and more easily than noncanonical orders. They plausibly relate that to the canonical order involving less syntactic computation than noncanonical orders. At certain points, though, they seem to draw the further conclusion that canonical order involves no movement at all, which does not follow. In addition to the text discussion of canonical SOXV order in various languages, see the discussion of (6) below, as well as and Cinque (1999) on verb movement in (canonical order sentences in) French and Italian (and various other languages), and 1997 2005; 2010) and Shlonsky ( ) on noun movement (in canonical order DPs). 6 Whitman makes the same point for the S-O-Tense/Aspect-Verb languages discussed by Dryer. 7 Cf. in part Biberauer (2008). For a remnant movement analysis of West Germanic OV, see and . For a remnant movement analysis (in which O must move leftward first) of VO order in Malagasy and similar languages, see .

Ancient Israelite purification offerings removed sins and physical ritual impurities from those who offered them and brought residual defilement from these evils into the sanctuary of God. The defilements that accumulated at the sanctuary throughout the year were ritually removed by special purification offerings on the annual Day of Atonement. This two-phase process of ritual atonement, which was unique in the ancient Near East, acknowledged and highlighted the effects on God when he is involved in freeing human beings from problems that they have caused.

Antik çağda savaşların galibiyet ya da mağlubiyetini belirleyen en önemli unsurlardan biri şüphesiz ki orduların etkin saldırı ve savunma silahlarına sahip olmalarıdır. Savaşlardaki galibiyet yalnızca sayıca üstünlüğün sonucu değildir. Galibiyete aynı zamanda taktiksel anlamda kıvrak bir zeka ve günün şartlarına uygun kuşatma, saldırı ve savunma silahlarının profesyonellikle kullanılması ile ulaşılabilmiştir. Bu çalışmada gerek antik Hellen ve Roma kaynakları gerekse arkeolojik verilerden edinilen bilgiler aracılığıyla Pers ordusunda kullanılan silahlar belirlenerek incelenmeye çalışılmıştır. Pers toplumunda, askerlik, soylu sınıfından köle sınıfına kadar zorunlu bir görev olarak benimsenmiştir. Başta antik Hellen yazarı Herodotos olmak üzere Strabon ve Ksenophon gibi yazarlar Pers çocuklarının küçük yaşlardan itibaren uzun ve zorlu eğitimlerden geçerek eğitildiğini bildirmektedir. Bu eğitimlerde özellikle ata binmek, ok atmak ve mızrak kullanmak gibi kişinin fiziksel açıdan kendini güçlendirdiği antrenmanlar öne çıkmaktadır. Zorlu süreçlerden sonra ordu içinde aktif görev alan Pers askerleri temelde ok, yay, kısa kılıç ve mızrak gibi hafif ancak hareket kabiliyetini kısıtlamayan silah ve teçhizatlarla donatılmışlardır. Egemenlik alanı geliştikçe gerek savaşla gerekse olağan süreç içerisinde karşılaştığı toplumlarla ilişkiler kuran Persler, bu toplumlara ait silah ve ekipmanlardan esinlenmiş ve bunları kendilerine uyarlayarak yeni formlar ortaya koymuşlardır. Akinakes, sagaris ve kopis gibi örneklendirebileceğimiz bu silahlar, Pers ordusundaki askeri birlikler tarafından uzun süreçler boyunca kullanılmıştır.

This paper focuses on recently discovered Safaitic inscriptions from the Jordanian Badia during the Badia Epigraphic Survey Project (BES), potentially referencing the historical figures King Aretas IV and his son King Malichus II. Drawing from the OCIANA database, which categorizes inscriptions mentioning or related to the Nabataeans or their rulers, these inscriptions have been meticulously studied and scrutinized.

Timber was extensively used in manufacturing ancient Egyptian daily life items and funerary furniture. This chapter focuses on the woodworking techniques and carpentry tools in ancient Egypt that are well known through the wall painting scenes of the ancient tombs, and the model of the carpentry workshop dates back to the Middle Kingdom, in addition to the excavation finds. The ancient Egyptian carpenters used many types of wood, including indigenous trees (Acacia sp., sycomore fig., and Tamarisk sp., etc.) and foreign trees (cedar, cypress, and Juniper sp., etc.). This chapter illustrates the types of these trees and their wood properties and uses. The techniques of woodwork include pending, plywood, drilling, turning, and smoothing, in addition to the wooden joints (corner joints, butt joints, mortise and tenon joints, dovetail joints, scarf joints, etc.). The ancient Egyptians developed several methods for fittings and fixtures, such as nails and tacks, hinges, brackets, and locks. The author sheds light on methods of repairing wooden artifacts and the reuse of earlier wooden artifacts, as well as the materials used in decorating wooden artifacts, including painting materials, leather, varnish, inlay, bark, gilding, plating, etc.

Recent archaeological excavations in the church of Sant'Avendrace in Cagliari have brought to light a building from the Roman age, that it seems interpretable as a sanctuary due to the architectural features and many finds, easily identifiable as ex voto, like terracotta plaquettes, miniature vases and some moulds. In this issue are presented some preliminary about the original shape of that moulds.

The Anatolian hieroglyphic script has number of signs, which have not been studied in a systematic manner, the so-called 'phonetic indicators' or 'phonetic complements'. This category comprises a small group of phonetic signs, which occur in combination with semantic signs and seem to hint at part of their phonetic realisation. The following article offers a study of phonetic complements in hieroglyphic inscriptions. It shows that clear rules govern the use of these signs, and it is suggested that this group should be called 'phonetic classifiers', analogous to 'semantic classifiers'.

A bronze siren cauldron attachment was identified at the Glencairn Museum in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania, and subsequently analyzed at MASCA at the University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. There are approximatley 80 such cauldron attachments known, some of which are Near Eastern in origin and others thought to be made in Greece.  This cauldron attachment has stylistic and analytical similarities with the early Near Eastern examples, especially one from Toprak Kale near Lake Van, and likely dates to the second half of the 8th century BCE.

Ancient fermented food has been studied based on recipes, residue analysis, and ancient-DNA techniques and reconstructed using modern domesticated yeast. Here, we present a novel approach based on our hypothesis that enriched yeast populations in fermented beverages could have become the dominant species in storage vessels and their descendants could be isolated and studied today. We developed a pipeline of yeast isolation from clay vessels and screened for yeast cells in beverage-related and non-beverage-related ancient vessels and sediments from several archaeological sites. We found that yeast cells could be successfully isolated specifically from clay containers of fermented beverages. The findings that genotypically the isolated yeasts are similar to those found in traditional African beverages and phenotypically they grow similar to modern beer-producing yeast strongly suggest that they are descendants of the original fermenting yeast. These results demonstrate that modern microorganisms can serve as a new tool in bio-archaeology research. IMPORTANCE So far, most of the study of ancient organisms has been based mainly on the analysis of ancient DNA. Here we show that it is possible to isolate and study microorganisms-yeast in this case-from ancient pottery vessels used for fermentation. We demonstrate that it is highly likely that these cells are descendants of the original yeast strains that participated in the fermentation process and were absorbed into the clay matrix of the pottery vessels. Moreover, we characterized the isolated yeast strains, their genomes, and the beer they produced. These results open new and exciting avenues in the study of domesticated microorganisms and contribute significantly to the fields of bio-and experimental archaeology that aim to reconstruct ancient artifacts and products. KEYWORDS ancient fermented food and beverages, ancient pottery vessels, beer, bio-archaeology, experimental archaeology, yeasts E xperimental archaeology is a field of research that studies ancient cultures by trying to reconstruct ancient lifestyles, including tools, housing, clothing, and diet (1, 2). Among the most challenging subjects of study in this field are fermented food products, such as cheese and pickles, and alcoholic beverages, including wine, beer, and mead (honey wine). All of these products played important roles in ancient

The Hebrew Bible and other ancient Near Eastern texts describe Egyptian, Aramean, Assyrian, and Babylonian military campaigns to the Southern Levant during the 10th to sixth centuries BCE. Indeed, many destruction layers dated to this period have been unearthed in archaeological excavations. Several of these layers are securely linked to specific campaigns and are widely accepted as chronological anchors. However, the dating of many other destruction layers is often debated, challenging the ability to accurately reconstruct the different military campaigns and raising questions regarding the historicity of the biblical narrative. Here, we present a synchronization of the historically dated chronological anchors and other destruction layers and artifacts using the direction and/or intensity of the ancient geomagnetic field recorded in mud bricks from 20 burnt destruction layers and in two ceramic assemblages. During the period in question, the geomagnetic field in this region was ext...

Ancient fermented food has been studied based on recipes, residue analysis, and ancient-DNA techniques and reconstructed using modern domesticated yeast. Here, we present a novel approach based on our hypothesis that enriched yeast populations in fermented beverages could have become the dominant species in storage vessels and their descendants could be isolated and studied today. We developed a pipeline of yeast isolation from clay vessels and screened for yeast cells in beverage-related and non-beverage-related ancient vessels and sediments from several archaeological sites. We found that yeast cells could be successfully isolated specifically from clay containers of fermented beverages. The findings that genotypically the isolated yeasts are similar to those found in traditional African beverages and phenotypically they grow similar to modern beer-producing yeast strongly suggest that they are descendants of the original fermenting yeast. These results demonstrate that modern microorganisms can serve as a new tool in bio-archaeology research. IMPORTANCE So far, most of the study of ancient organisms has been based mainly on the analysis of ancient DNA. Here we show that it is possible to isolate and study microorganisms-yeast in this case-from ancient pottery vessels used for fermentation. We demonstrate that it is highly likely that these cells are descendants of the original yeast strains that participated in the fermentation process and were absorbed into the clay matrix of the pottery vessels. Moreover, we characterized the isolated yeast strains, their genomes, and the beer they produced. These results open new and exciting avenues in the study of domesticated microorganisms and contribute significantly to the fields of bio-and experimental archaeology that aim to reconstruct ancient artifacts and products. KEYWORDS ancient fermented food and beverages, ancient pottery vessels, beer, bio-archaeology, experimental archaeology, yeasts E xperimental archaeology is a field of research that studies ancient cultures by trying to reconstruct ancient lifestyles, including tools, housing, clothing, and diet (1, 2). Among the most challenging subjects of study in this field are fermented food products, such as cheese and pickles, and alcoholic beverages, including wine, beer, and mead (honey wine). All of these products played important roles in ancient

The Hebrew Bible and other ancient Near Eastern texts describe Egyptian, Aramean, Assyrian, and Babylonian military campaigns to the Southern Levant during the 10th to sixth centuries BCE. Indeed, many destruction layers dated to this period have been unearthed in archaeological excavations. Several of these layers are securely linked to specific campaigns and are widely accepted as chronological anchors. However, the dating of many other destruction layers is often debated, challenging the ability to accurately reconstruct the different military campaigns and raising questions regarding the historicity of the biblical narrative. Here, we present a synchronization of the historically dated chronological anchors and other destruction layers and artifacts using the direction and/or intensity of the ancient geomagnetic field recorded in mud bricks from 20 burnt destruction layers and in two ceramic assemblages. During the period in question, the geomagnetic field in this region was ext...

This Supernatural Rare Book of old is a comprehensive exploration of spiritualist thought and metaphysics in the late 19th century. The book systematically examines the existence of spirits, their hierarchical organization, their interactions with the material world, and the philosophical underpinnings of spiritualism. Crowell, a physician by profession, combines empirical observations with testimonies from mediums, historical accounts, and theological perspectives to construct a coherent narrative on the spirit realm.

The book delves into various aspects of spiritual existence, including the nature and function of spirits, the conditions of the afterlife, and the progression of souls. It argues for a structured spirit hierarchy, suggesting that spirits evolve through moral and intellectual development. Crowell also discusses mediumship, clairvoyance, and spirit communication, providing detailed case studies to support his claims. The text further engages with religious interpretations, particularly Christian and ancient esoteric traditions, to contextualize spiritualist doctrines.

From a philosophical standpoint, The Spirit World presents a synthesis of scientific reasoning and mystical insights, advocating for a rational investigation into the unseen dimensions of life. It critiques materialist skepticism and offers evidence to support spiritual phenomena. The book was influential in the development of 19th-century spiritualist movements, contributing to the broader discourse on life after death, the soul’s immortality, and the mechanisms of divine justice. Crowell's work remains a significant reference for scholars of esoteric traditions, spiritualism, and historical approaches to metaphysics.
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A dabber from the last centuries BC bears an inscription of the owner and four graphic units. One of these prove that the so-called triratna symbol was originally not a symbol at all, but a monogram that can be read as namo, "veneration". The other three, fish, flag, and rotating star, have parallels in artistic expressions of many religious communities of ancient India. The fish can be used to understand part of the historical role of the cave ensemble at Barabar, while the rotating star throws light on the world of Indra in the art of Sanchi and Gandhara.

This article looks at the linguistic, textual and other problems of equating the Pharaoh Hatshepsut with the Queen of Sheba. This is one of the central pillars of the revised chronology of the Ancient Near East, particularly Egypt, first mooted by Immanuel Velikovsky in the middle of the last century, and taken up by other writers since, including works that are very popular in creationist circles. The conclusion is that this Hatshepsut/Sheba identification is not tenable in the light of the available evidence. M any Christians today are greatly influenced by the revisionist claims of four people in particular. Firstly, Immanuel Velikovsky, a Russian-born psychoanalyst, who authored a number of books in which he proposed numerous radical interpretations of history. In Ages in Chaos (1952), 1 Velikovsky, who would not have called himself a Biblebeliever, described what he thought were parallels between Egyptian history and the biblical accounts covering the period from the Exodus to the early years of the Divided Monarchy. This ignited a fierce debate on the chronologies of the Ancient Near East (ANE) that continues to this day. Secondly, Donovan Courville 2 had much to say about Egyptian chronology in The Exodus and Its Ramifications. Thirdly, Emmet J. Sweeney introduced further controversy to this area in his book Empire of Thebes: Ages in Chaos Revisited. And finally, archaeologist David Down, principal author of Unwrapping the Pharaohs. Courville, Sweeney, and Down have to a greater or lesser degree been influenced by and built on Velikovsky's ideas. The above-mentioned authors' ideas will be referred to as the Velikovsky-Inspired Chronology (VIC). The chronology debate is a serious issue. There is always the risk that believers may base their thinking more on secular history rather than the Bible. They may have problems believing Bible history because the findings of archaeology can give a very different interpretation of the evidence, and some Bible commentaries are also unhelpful. Believers seeking for solutions to apparent conflicts with the biblical chronology may unwittingly be beginning their thinking, not with the solid foundation of Scripture, but with the ideas of various revisionists. If these rest on a foundation of sand, the Bible's credibility is further harmed. The author presupposes (in general agreement with many other creationist writers) that: • The Bible is authoritative and its chronology totally accurate. • The Conventional Egyptian (Manethian) chronology, as it presently stands, is erroneous and in need of significant revision. However, any scheme of revision proposed must be based on sound scholarship, and be consistent with the available historical (including biblical) evidence. Whilst having every sympathy for the motivations of these authors who have proposed revising ANE chronologies so that they line up with the Bible, their interpretation of the evidence raises serious questions about their methodology and often their expertise in the area. For example, Velikovsky's lack of competence as a historian was brutally exposed in 1965, by the expert cuneiformist, Abraham Sachs, in a forum at Brown University, Rhode Island. 6 Sachs had much to say about Velikovsky's claims on Mesopotamian history. This is part of what Sachs had to say: "In 1896, an excellent dictionary of Akkadian contained 790 pages; today [1961], the latest torso of an Akkadian dictionary-with only one-third of the dictionary published in 8 volumes already runs to more than 2500 pages. I mention all this only to underline the sad fact that anyone who, like Dr. Velikovsky, is not a student of cuneiform, runs the very high risk of finding non-existent facts, false translations, and abandoned theories that have foundered on the rocks of new textual material when he relies, as Dr. Velikovsky does, on books and articles that are 80, 50, 40, and in some cases, even 20 years old." And in reference to an earlier work by Velikovsky, Sachs said: "On pp. 274-275 of Worlds in Collision, Dr. Velikovsky says, [and I quote him]: 'Reports concerning earthquakes in Mesopotamia in the eighth and seventh centuries are very numerous and they are dated.' Go to the source referred to in the footnote, and you will find that it is not the 8 th -7 th centuries but the fourth-third centuries. On page 315 of the same opus, Dr. Velikovsky reports a value for the length of daylight from what he calls [quote] 'the Babylonian astronomical tablets of the eighth century' [unquote] b.c. When one goes to the source, one finds that the date of the texts is 3 rd century b.c., not eighth. At various places, Dr. Velikovsky talks about Babylonian calendars and length of year and length of month. Not being a cuneiformist, Dr. Velikovsky is not aware that tens of thousands of economic texts dated in the civil calendars of ancient Mesopotamia contradict every one of his statements." Velikovsky was never able to refute Sachs's criticisms. VIC theory rests upon a number of mutually supportive pillars. The two most important of these are the Patrick Clarke has developed a deep interest in ancient Egypt since early childhood. His speciality is the pharaonic tombs in the Valley of the Kings; their architecture, artwork and afterlife texts. He presently resides with his family in France.

Eski caglardan gunumuze kadar, insanoglu inanma ihtiyaci uzerine kurulu bir yasam surer. Ancak gunumuze oranla antik dunya dinlerinin karmasik, egzotik ve efsanelerle dolu oldugu su goturmez bir gercektir. Bu ilkel inanclara dair yapilan bircok arastirmada, din ve inanc bakimindan birbirinden etkilenen toplumlarin hatta uygarliklarin oldugu sonucunu cikarabiliriz. Cunku insan, dogasi geregi degisime ve etkilesime acik yapidadir. Buna bagli olarak calismanin konusu; Anadolu ve Eski Yakin Dogu inanclarindaki etkilesimin onemli orneklerinden birisi olan, Firtina Tanrisi uzerinedir. Eskicag dinlerinin bircogunda tapinim goren bu tanrinin genel olarak sifati; bas tanri ya da baba tanri olup, etkin bir karakterdir. Insanligin meydana getirdigi kulturel gecislerin sonucu olarak; Firtina Tanrisi’ nin kokeni, gelisimi ve isimleri uzerinde durulmaya calisilacaktir.