18th and 19th Century

The purpose with this survey, is to examine samples from ironage houses and other contexts from Gamla Uppsala. Samples were taken as part of contract archaeology excavations for the building of OKB, but weren't prioritised for these investigations. Macrofossil from the houses and other areas are analysed, in order to answer questions about the function of the houses, the surrounding environment and possible social situations. Macrofossil is organic material visible for the naked eye, such as seeds, bone, insects, shells etc. To make the material available, flotation of the soil samples is used in order to separate the macrofossil from de soil itself. Other surveys have been executed with the same project (OKB) as background, which results will be used as a comparison to this study. The main findings of archaeobotanical analyses so far has been the identificaton were different kinds of cerealgrains, which indicate human household activities. The intention of this analysis is to i...

Craftmen who created artworks in palace miniaturist houses (Nakkaşhaneler) and added
paterns to traditional decoration arts were inspired by the natüre and they used them as motifs of
their designs by stylizing flowers. Today, it is the dream of many craftsmen to introduce new motifs
consisting of flowers that were not stylized in previous periods to the fields of illuminations, engravery,
bookbinding, hand-drawn and tile. Within the scope of this study, some of the geophyte-bulbous
(endemic) plants specific to Sakarya Province were designed in a vegetal and naturalistic style and
incorporated into traditional decoration arts.
Türkiye is a country with diverse climates. The reflection of this diversity is rich biodiversity.
Each city has many unique endemic plants. Eighteen of the flowering plants specific to sakarya
Province were selected. Their Latin names: İris Purpureabractea, Crocus Abentensis, Bellevalia
Clusiana, Gagea Bithnica, Corydalis Caucasica, Dactylorhiza Saccifera Subsp. Bithnica, Crocus
Oliveri Subsp. İstanbulensis, Dactylorhiza Nieschalkiorum, Arum Higrophyllum Subsp. Euxiunum,
Muscari Aucheri, Hyacinthella Lineata, Hyacinthella Micrantha, Muscari Bourgaei, Crocus
Antalyensis, Crocus Danfordiae, Crocus Flavus, Crocus Pestalozzae, Crocus Sakariensis. These
eighteen geophyte plants were stylized by taking their flowers, leaves, stems, bulbs and roots as
models. These flowers were designed as floral motifs that could be used in naturalistic flower
bouquets or ornament designs; there were applied with similar techniques to 18th and 19th centry
designs, with the use of baroque and rococo elements. The designs created as a result of the
stylization of eighteen endemic (geophyte-bulbous) flowers unique to Sakarya Province will be
shared with the world o art and science for the first time.
These designs were studied as undergraduate graduation projects, and they were also
entitled to be supported as a research Project within the scope of Tübitak 2209 A in the second
semester of 2024.

W dniu 1 kwietnia 1922 r. biskup lubelski Marian Leon Fulman wystosował do księdza Jana Kureczki, proboszcza w podlubelskiej Konopnicy, pismo, w którym wzywał go do podania projektu granic organizującej się parafii w Motyczu. Wieś ta wchodziła do tej pory w skład konopnickiego okręgu parafialnego. W odpowiedzi ksiądz Kureczko nie tylko określił granice nowej jednostki kościelnej, ale także przedstawił okoliczności, które skłoniły część jego parafian do podjęcia starań i działań zmierzających do realizacji tego przedsięwzięcia. Po utrzymaniu stosownych wyjaśnień, dnia 12 kwietnia 1922 r. biskup Fulman powołał administratora kościoła filialnego w Motyczu oraz zapowiedział rychłe erygowanie tamtejszej parafii. Udostępnienie ich szerszemu gronu odbiorców jest istotne dla badań poświęconych zagadnieniu zakładania nowych parafii w ziemi lubelskiej w okresie dwudziestolecia międzywojennego oraz dla badań nad historią regionalną.

Powiat szadkowski u schyłku XVIII w. był bardzo rozległy. Jego granice wyznaczały rzeki Warta, Widawka i Ner. Zaczynał się u ujścia Neru pod Uniejowem, a kończył na linii Widawa-Zelów. Na jego terenie było 39 parafii 1 , niewielkie dobra królewskie i rozległe włości kościelne. W 1789 r. na terenie powiatu szadkowskiego działała komisja pod przewodnictwem Stefana Walewskiego, której celem było zebranie danych o przychodach w poszczególnych majątkach-informacje te były niezbędne dla obliczenia wysokości podatków. Podstawą wyliczenia był średni dochód z 3 (ewentualnie 2) lat, podany przez właściciela, dzierŜawcę, ekonoma lub pisarza. Dane te deklarowano pod przysięgą, co skrupulatnie, przy kaŜdej pozycji, zapisano w protokole 2. Oprócz dochodów i wyliczonych podatków, wyszczególniono dziesięcinę 3 z zaznaczeniem, do jakiego kościoła jest oddawana, jak teŜ liczbę dymów. Podatek od domów, zwany podymnym, był zróŜnicowany na 4-klasowy i zaleŜał od materiału, z jakiego dom był zbudowany.

Powiat szadkowski u schyłku XVIII w. był bardzo rozległy. Jego granice wyznaczały rzeki Warta, Widawka i Ner. Zaczynał się u ujścia Neru pod Uniejowem, a kończył na linii Widawa-Zelów. Na jego terenie było 39 parafii 1 , niewielkie dobra królewskie i rozległe włości kościelne. W 1789 r. na terenie powiatu szadkowskiego działała komisja pod przewodnictwem Stefana Walewskiego, której celem było zebranie danych o przychodach w poszczególnych majątkach-informacje te były niezbędne dla obliczenia wysokości podatków. Podstawą wyliczenia był średni dochód z 3 (ewentualnie 2) lat, podany przez właściciela, dzierŜawcę, ekonoma lub pisarza. Dane te deklarowano pod przysięgą, co skrupulatnie, przy kaŜdej pozycji, zapisano w protokole 2. Oprócz dochodów i wyliczonych podatków, wyszczególniono dziesięcinę 3 z zaznaczeniem, do jakiego kościoła jest oddawana, jak teŜ liczbę dymów. Podatek od domów, zwany podymnym, był zróŜnicowany na 4-klasowy i zaleŜał od materiału, z jakiego dom był zbudowany.

Version de travail Durant les trente dernières années, l'histoire de la famille à l'époque moderne ou préindustrielle a connu un développement considérable qui est en grande partie lié à une évolution même de la définition de son objet. Dans les années 1990 et 2000, les chercheurs ont, en effet, cessé de se concentrer sur la cellule familiale composée par le père, la mère et les enfants co-résidents pour envisager les relations familiales entre membres plus éloignés de la famille, entre non-corésidents ou encore au sein de la parenté 1. Ce mouvement très fructueux a permis de reconsidérer le rôle de la famille au sein des sociétés préindustrielles et de l'industrialisation naissante. L'historiographie ancienne ou récente n'a cependant pas épuisé les questions des relations entre le mari et l'épouse ou entre les parents et les enfants, qui ont longtemps constitué le coeur de l'histoire de la famille. La communication que nous proposons aujourd'hui revient sur les relations établies entre les parents et les enfants mais en se centrant sur les âges les plus élevés de ces derniers. Alors que partout, dans l'Europe actuelle, l'évolution de la vie moderne, en particulier liée aux effets de la crise économique de la fin des années 2000, semble retarder l'âge du départ des enfants du foyer parental, avec de réelles conséquences économiques, sociales ou émotionnelles, la question de la présence, ou non, prolongée de ces mêmes grands enfants, chez, ou auprès de leurs parents, n'appelle aucune réponse évidente en ce qui concerne les XVIIe, XVIIIe et XIXe siècles 2. Dans le tome de L'Histoire de la population française consacré à l'époque moderne, Jacques Dupâquier résume ainsi l'alternative qui se présente à eux : « Fondé sur le contrôle des mariages et un accès strictement limité au marché matrimonial, le système autorégulateur de la population française réduisait les jeunes gens à végéter dans une position subalterne, tant que leurs parents survivaient, à leur servir d'aides familiaux ou à se placer comme domestiques, à la campagne ou à la ville, afin d'amasser un pécule qui leur permît de s'établir. 3 » Les perspectives qui sont donc offertes aux jeunes gens des groupes inférieurs ou moyens de la société semblent donc peu enviables : une sortie précoce du ménage parental ou le maintien dans une position subordonnée, sans réelle progression ou autonomisation, tant qu'ils n'avaient pas hérité ou tant que le mariage n'était pas venu leur offrir l'accès à un nouveau statut. Nous voudrions cependant dans cette contribution approfondir la réflexion sur ce groupe des enfants devenus grands et leur place à la fois dans la famille et les communautés locales en nous appuyant sur les expressions de « grands garçons » et de « grandes filles ». Sans être fréquentes, elles se rencontrent néanmoins dans les textes du XVIIIe siècle, le plus souvent sans avoir un sens réellement spécifique 4. Le grand texte éducatif de la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle qu'est l'Émile, ou De

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Vers la naissance d'un esprit communautaire ? Donations pieuses et philanthropiques dans la pratique testamentaire des marchands de Valachie (XVIIIᵉ-début du XIXᵉ siècle)* GHEORGHE LAZĂR Dans son ouvrage La potence ou la pitié, en analysant la problématique complexe de la pauvreté et des différentes manières de se rapporter à cette réalité économique le long du temps dans l'espace de l'Europe Occidentale, Bronislaw Geremek constatait : * Cette étude a été réalisée dans le cadre d'une subvention accordée par le

PIOTR RACHWAŁ 260 są zgodne ze stanem faktycznym), rodzaju formularza (f. t.-formularz trydencki, f. a.-formularz austriacki, f. p.-formularz polski), języka, w jakim sporządzono wpisy (łac.-łacina, pol.-polski, ros.-rosyjski), liczby stron-jeśli numeracja była prowadzona, w przeciwnym wypadku na oznaczenie numeracji użyto skrótu "bns". Przykładowy opis najstarszej księgi chrztów z parafi i Abramowice-"3_1_1; Księga urodzeń od roku 1797; I 1797-XII 1825; f. a.; łac.; 192 + bns.", zawiera następujące elementy: "3_1_1"-sygnatura księgi "Księga urodzeń od roku 1797"-tytuł umieszczony na okładce; "I 1797-XII 1825"-faktyczne daty skrajne zapisów; "f. a."-księga prowadzona według formularza austriackiego; "łac."-zapisy sporządzono w języku łacińskim; "192 + bns."-księga składa się ze 192 numerowanych stron i dodatkowo kart nienumerowanych. W przypadku opisu ksiąg prowadzonych według formularza trydenckiego i w wyjątkowych przypadkach dla metryk sporządzanych według innych formularzy dołączono uwagi. Zawierają one informacje o formacie księgi, materiale oprawy, zniszczeniach, ubytkach itp., a także adnotacje o kontroli prowadzonej w czasie wizytacji dziekańskiej.

Obszar parafii jako czynnik źródłotwórczy rejestracji metrykalnej w dekanacie Kazimierz na przełomie XVIII i XIX wieku Wprowadzenie Warunkiem sine qua non poznania procesów demograficznych zachodzących w przeszłości jest oparcie badań na kompletnej podstawie źródłowej. W przypadku rejestracji metrykalnej kompletność należy rozumieć nie tyle jako ciągłość zachowanych materiałów źródłowych, ale jako wierne odtwarzanie procesu dziejowego. Innymi słowy, istotne jest, aby liczba zdarzeń zapisanych w księgach metrykalnych była zgodna z liczbą faktycznie zaistniałych 1. Literatura przedmiotu wskazuje na kilka zasadniczych czynników, które mogą wpływać na wspomnianą wiarygodność. Ważną rolę odgrywało duchowieństwo odpowiedzialne za prowadzenie statystyki parafialnej. Wszelkie problemy zdrowotne księży, wyjazdy, zdarzenia losowe, lub po prostu zaniedbywanie swoich obowiązków odbijały się na rejestracji metrykalnej. Negatywny wpływ wyżej wymienionych elementów nasilał się, gdy obsada parafii była jednoosobowa. Z drugiej strony równie istotna była postawa samych wiernych. Nie zawsze stosowali się oni do nakazów Kościoła względem praktyk religijnych, a brak jednolitych uregulowań w kwestii 6 Więcej na ten temat: Kuklo, Demografia, 68. W pracy posługujemy się danymi zagregowanymi. Średnie liczby ruchu naturalnego użyte do obliczeń z wykorzystaniem stanu ludności nie zostały scentrowane na rok spisu, tj. 1787, a o granicach przedziału czasowego zadecydowały względy źródłowe. 7 Krytyczne uwagi na temat spisu wraz z przywołaniem literatury na ten temat, zob. Gieysztorowa, "Niebezpieczeństwa", 570. 8 Podstawową literaturę przedmiotu oraz wykaz źródeł dotyczących rozwoju sieci parafialnej w archidiakonacie lubelskim zawierają opracowania:

Parish chronicles as a source for researching local communities in Galicia Parish chronicles are extremely significant and interesting source materials for examining the history of local communities in former Galicia. The author presents the requirements parish chronicles had to meet in the Galicia period as well as discussing their usual content, referring to examples from various chronicles.

Sanction clauses are diplomatic formulae found in most early medieval documents recording property transactions or legal disputes. The function of these clauses was to deter non-compliance with the terms expressed in the document in which they appeared, by establishing a series of spiritual and/or temporal penalties. Because of their formulaic nature, historians have long argued that they were mainly symbolic rather than practical (Zimmermann, 2003; Bowman, 2004), going so far as to call them ‘useless formulas’ (Martín, 1982). However, recent studies have shown that sanction clauses did not appear in documents simply because they were drafted according to a particular diplomatic scheme, but that their presence responded to the context surrounding the legal act being performed and the actors involved in it (Davies, 2002; Carvajal, 2017; Carvajal and Escalona, 2020).
Nevertheless, most of these works have only dealt with the study of the sanctions themselves, leaving aside the conditional clause with which these formulae begin, where the potential aggressors of the legal act recorded in the document are indicated. In most cases, this mention is of a general nature, but in others it is more detailed and may mention as possible offenders the grantors themselves, their relatives and, to a lesser extent, some authorities. This has led to the suggestion that these apparently simple variations on the diplomatic model may in fact also reflect the social reality surrounding the act being recorded and contain reference of at least a potential conflict. A hypothesis reinforced by the results of the study of the doublets, i.e. documents that were copied two or more times in a chartulary. These doublets may be identical or with some modifications and where the latter is the case and the list of potential aggressors is more detailed in the second of the documents, it has been found that this is because the drafting of the second version actually took place after the outbreak of a conflict, mostly within families (Escalona, forthcoming).
The aim of this paper is therefore to study the phenomenon of intra-family conflicts from the seemingly invisible traces it has left in early medieval documentary production from the north-west of the Iberian Peninsula. Through the analysis of the changes in the sanction clauses of doublets and other complementary sources our purpose is, firstly, to identify the actors involved in the disputes, their interests and the tensions that these could generate within the kinships. And secondly, to reconstruct the context in which these conflicts would have taken place, in order to understand how the transformations in the social articulation of the ‘small worlds’, when they came into contact with major monastic institutions and their policies of property accumulation, could affect family dynamics.

This international and interdisciplinary conference brings together Italian, Spanish and French doctoral students whose research focuses on the literature and history of Antiquity and the Middle Ages. The aim of this meeting is to reassess the «Transformation of the Roman World» (4th-10th century) through the prism of family conflicts. From the 4th century onwards, Roman societies underwent gradual transformations, which invalidates the traditional idea of a clear break between Antiquity and the Middle Ages. What's more, the most recent work on this transitional period has shown that it is relevant to analyze these global changes on the basis of more localized phenomena such as family relationships. So to what extent do family conflicts bear witness to a world in transformation? Participants will attempt to answer this question by focusing on cases of family conflicts in Western societies between the 4th and 10th centuries AD.

Citizenship, Charles Tilly has said, is``a continuing series of transactions between persons and agents of a given state in which each has enforceable rights and obligations uniquely by virtue of 1) the persons' membership in an exclusive category and 2) the agent's relation to the state rather than any authority the agent may enjoy.'' 1 Three elements are crucial to this de¢nition: the nature of the``persons,'' i.e., citizens, the nature of the authority that Tilly foreshortens as``the state,'' and ¢nally the reciprocal relationship between these two actors. The importance of this de¢nition is that it allows for variation, through time and space, and presents the bond between citizen and state as one that provides both parties with entitlements on the other. The problem with such a wide de¢nition, however, is that it makes it di¤cult to distinguish between various types of ties between state o¤cials and inhabitants of the state. In other words, when we let go of the formal aspect in the de¢nition of citizenship, it tends to blur into a very wide range of issues indeed. 2 Instead, this article will de¢ne the``exclusive category'' from the outset as``citizenship'' in the legal sense. Thus, thè`p eople'' discussed in this article are citizens. The other party presents problems, too. Under the Old Regime, no such thing as Dutch citizenship existed. The state, i.e., the Dutch Republic, was a federation, composed of seven sovereign provinces. These provinces did not have citizens either, at least in the formal sense. Citizenship in the Dutch Republic was a local, more speci¢cally an urban phenomenon. 3 There was nothing unusual in this: urban citizenship was the norm throughout early modern Europe. 4 This changed radically during the Napoleonic era, in the Netherlands as much as in other European countries. 5 The French revolutionary regime, and its collaborators in the occupied territories, centralized government and administration, and created new ties between themselves and their subjects, in the form of modern citizenship.

Desde hace aproximadamente veinte años, Medina Sidonia viene apostando por poner en valor su rico patrimonio histórico y, especialmente, el arqueológico. En este sentido, el inicio de la investigación en el castillo de la ciudad, en la cumbre del cerro del mismo nombre, ha supuesto, por un lado, la profundización en el conocimiento del pasado de este lugar, contando ya con datos para establecer su evolución desde la Prehistoria Reciente hasta la actualidad, prácticamente sin solución de continuidad; y, por otro, con la puesta en valor de lo hasta ahora excavado, se ofrece a la sociedad un nuevo espacio cultural, emblemático por su historia particular y por su emplazamiento privilegiado.

The function of "intermediary objects" in the natural history of Mont-Blanc, 1740-1825.-This article analyses the conditions of the scientific discovery of Mont-Blanc in regard to the exchanges of artefacts between scholars. In a period when the emerging scientific field is still bordered by artists, men of letters and wealthy travelers, some of these "intermediary objects" combine scientific functions with cultural and social ones. It is particularly obvious for illustrations of mountains and glaciers, despite de Saussure's attempt to develop them as geological tools. In the case of specimens, their function and circulation is very dependent on the research field as well as on the intentions and methodological conceptions of each scholar. Some collections are still conceived for curiosity and social display, whereas others are intended for instruction and research. Most of them combine different functions in various proportions. The specimens they contain may thus be spectacular or not. They can be viewed by colleagues or tourists, be presented at local societies, or remain stored for personal use. They circulate as illustrations into wider circles, or are simply mentioned by visitors. Foreign geologists and naturalists can thus be supplied in study objects sent as specimens, illustrations or texts. But this circulation of intermediary objects can not totally replace the field experience, especially in the case of geology. In a final section, the article analyses the circulation of manuscripts and published texts, which are intermediary objects as well as semiotic items, and therefore create their own collaborative dynamics between scholars.

The “Mediterranean Wall” in the territory of the Marina Alta: bunkers and batteries of the Spanish War (1936-1939)In 1936-1939 the War of Spain took place, turning its territory into the testing ground of Europe in anticipation of the Second World War; here new weapons were tested: mass media, propaganda and aviation. The national side used Mallorca as “aircraft carrier” from which it launched airstrikes on the Mediterranean coast: a rearguard that required fortification. To defend the cities, the Republican government ordered, in 1937, to build a coastal defensive system (“Mediterranean Wall”). On the Valencian coast there were ten basic enclaves: from the lighthouse of Castellón to the end of Santa Pola. This network of defenses had two built lines. The first was constituted by elements located at zero level, by the sea and on the beaches, which maintained regular distances from each other; these were reinforced concrete bunkers that sought to camouflage themselves. A second was f...

El presente trabajo es el resultado de una primera revisión bibliográfica, cartográfica y de algunos documentos, como la edición de las Ordenanzas de Castellar u otros seleccionados del Archivo Ducal de Medinaceli. A este archivo fueron transferidos los del señorío de Castellar, después de que la finca pasara a esta Casa, en 1818. Hasta la fecha se había supuesto un origen árabe de la torre en base su topónimo, sin embargo, el término ha llegado muy alterado y, posiblemente, se aplicó en época castellana. Su modelo constructivo es diferente al de los ocho edificios medievales conservados en el territorio de la antigua provincia islámica de al-Ŷazīra al-jadrā´, que coincide aproximadamente con la comarca del Campo de Gibraltar. Solo hemos podido concretar que se construyó antes de 1510, sin que podamos asegurar si se hizo en época islámica o bajo el dominio de los Saavedra, señores de Castellar.

ES
La fortificación ejecutada al finalizar la Guerra Civil Española en la orilla norte del estrecho de Gibraltar, en una franja litoral de más de cien kilómetros entre Conil de la Frontera y San Roque, tenía por objetivos controlar la navegación entre el Atlántico y el Mediterráneo, bloquear el Peñón de Gibraltar, y defenderse de un posible desembarco enemigo. Dada la capacidad de destrucción y el alcance de la artillería, la progresiva dispersión de los elementos convierte a la fortificación en un verdadero sistema fortificado, un conjunto compuesto por diversas redes o subsistemas con una importante componente territorial. En este artículo se pone el acento en esos subsistemas, entendiendo que, tanto ellos como las arquitecturas que los componen, se vinculan con lo patrimonial y muestran una sugerente relación con el paisaje.

EN
The fortification executed at the end of the Spanish Civil War on the north shore of the Strait of Gibraltar, on a coastal strip with more than one hundred kilometers between Conil de la Frontera and San Roque, had as objectives to control the navigation between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, block the Rock of Gibraltar, and defend the coast against a possible enemy landing. Given the capacity for destruction and the range of the artillery, the progressive dispersion of the elements converts the fortification into a fortified system, a group composed of diverse networks or subsystems with an important territorial component. This article highlights those subsystems, understanding that both they and their architectures are linked to heritage value and express a suggestive relationship with the landscape.

De los dos cercos que sufrió el castillo de Gibraltar en 1333, resulta especialmente interesante el segundo de ellos, cuando el rey Alfonso XI intentó recuperar para Castilla la plaza gibraltareña. Las peculiares circunstancias que envolvieron este cerco nos da pie para tratar el asunto desde la doble perspectiva de la logística y de la geología, factores que influyeron en el resultado final de aquel lance histórico. Resumen Of the two sieges that the castle of Gibraltar suffered in 1333, the second one is especially interesting, when King Alfonso XI tried to recover the Gibraltarian plaza for Castile. The peculiar circumstances that surrounded this site give us the opportunity to treat this issue from the double perspective of logistics and geology, factors that influenced the final result of that historic set.

Les premiers discours géologiques ont eu fréquemment recours à la catastrophe pour tenter d'expliquer des phénomènes jugés comme dépassant nécessairement l'ampleur des phénomènes observés à l'époque des auteurs. Georges Cuvier en observant des ossements fossiles concluait à la succession de faunes au cours de l'histoire de la Terre et imaginait que ces disparitions résultaient de catastrophes à l'échelle du globe. La Terre aurait ainsi connu une succession de révolutions biologiques. Léonce Élie de Beaumont en observant les couches déformées des chaînes de montagnes concluait que leur disposition était causée par des soulèvements liés au refroidissement séculaire du globe. L'échelle de ces dislocations de la croûte terrestre le conduisait lui aussi à penser en termes de catastrophes et de révolutions. Ces deux auteurs marquent le discours catastrophiste de la géologie du début du XIX e siècle sans doute parce que le recours à la catastrophe était une facilité interprétative face à la complexité des phénomènes mis en jeu.

Député à la Constituante, à la Convention, aux Cinq-Cents, puis au Corps législatif, Riffard Saint-Martin a tenu un Journal dans lequel il consigne, notamment à partir de la Convention, une grande partie de ses impressions politiques. Témoignage de premier plan, il permet de comprendre l'itinéraire d'un député de l'Ardèche, proche de Boissy d'Anglas, incontestablement membre du « parti girondin », ce qui lui vaut d'être membre de la Commission des douze en mai 1793. Mais il évite la proscription, reste à la Convention, se terre, avant de faire partie des thermidoriens et d'exprimer par le truchement de son Journal son rejet de la période de la Terreur et de ceux qui l'incarnent. En même temps, il demeure un républicain avéré très hostile au royalisme.

This article introduces a special issue that explores public services in early modern Europe. It advocates a broad definition of early modern public services: all public facilities provided by (semi-) governments, churches, religious organizations, civic institutions, and individual citizens. Such a definition is more appropriate because most late medieval and early modern towns were civil societies in which services were provided and financed by myriad agencies, institutions, corporations, and individuals who were part of the city. Early modern public services were thus shaped and formed by conceptions of common good, citizenship, and urban community. Such characteristics were by no means static. Reallocations of facilities in premodern cities resulted from a complex set of demographic, economic, social, political, and personal causes. Although significant changes in the system of provisioning occurred during the early modern period, such alterations were always firmly rooted in traditional conceptions of how the common interest should be best served. Keywords public services, urban community, citizenship, professionalization This special issue of the Journal of Urban History is a result of an international conference "Civil Society and Public Services in Early Modern Europe," which was held in November-December 2007 in the Netherlands at Leiden University. 1 The conference's main objective was to explore the broad field of the provision of public services in early modern European cities. While many specialized studies have appeared on topics such as welfare and poverty, bureaucratization, and citizenship in early modern cities, far less attention has been paid to the working of public services in general. In 1982 a Belgian conference made a first effort to cover the diverse field of public services and initiatives in late medieval and early modern towns in the Southern Netherlands. The conference proceedings were published in 1984, and included broader approaches on the functioning of early modern public services in certain towns, as well as microstudies on specific provisions, including military defense and security, public building, economic provisions, welfare, education, and legislation. 2 Surprisingly, there were no subsequent research meetings covering the wide-ranging field of public provisioning in early modern Europe. The Dutch conference of 2007, which followed the broad approach of the Belgian conference of

Our lives are characterized by two decisive points: birth and death, the two most vulnerable moments in our existence. These are such natural processes, that without them all living beings would not exist. Death typically evokes fearful feelings in people. The view of death is the history of humanity at the same time. Death is the most important philosophical question in all historical times, reflecting certain cultures' convictions. People’s attitudes toward death are changing excessively, so chronologically it is worthy to study from a millennial perspective. The pictorial representations of death, the habits, and the behavioural and burial forms reflect the view of death in certain civilisations. Many burial forms came to be, and all set, which ritual way the deceased received the final honour.

Habits are less in the present time, and the rule of religion decreases, so the confrontation with death means a huge trial.

Il y a quelques annees, j'avais presente au COFRHIGEO deux cours de Geologie donnes par Cuvier au College de France en 1805 et 1808. Ces deux cours etaient extraits d'un recueil de lecons prises en note par Jean-Baptiste d'Omalius d'Halloy (1783-1875), geologue belge bien connu qui fit une partie de ses etudes a Paris durant les premieres annees du XIXe siecle. Aujourd'hui, c'est un autre cours tire de ce meme recueil que je vous presente, je veux parler du cours de Geognosie professe en 1813 par Alexandre Brongniart a la Faculte des sciences de Paris. (...)

The “Mediterranean Wall” in the territory of the Marina Alta: bunkers and batteries of the Spanish War (1936-1939)In 1936-1939 the War of Spain took place, turning its territory into the testing ground of Europe in anticipation of the Second World War; here new weapons were tested: mass media, propaganda and aviation. The national side used Mallorca as “aircraft carrier” from which it launched airstrikes on the Mediterranean coast: a rearguard that required fortification. To defend the cities, the Republican government ordered, in 1937, to build a coastal defensive system (“Mediterranean Wall”). On the Valencian coast there were ten basic enclaves: from the lighthouse of Castellón to the end of Santa Pola. This network of defenses had two built lines. The first was constituted by elements located at zero level, by the sea and on the beaches, which maintained regular distances from each other; these were reinforced concrete bunkers that sought to camouflage themselves. A second was f...

Recent years have seen the renewal of historiography concerning the police in the early modern period. Specialists no longer receive the figure of cities without police forces before the creation of modern institutions. Moreover, recent research has demonstrated convergence of a great movement of reflection with reforms of the police forces and organizations in European towns, especially in the second half of the eighteenth century. Two tendencies illustrate this evolution: first, the general decline of the institutions of civic police forces and their replacement by professional forces and, second, the professionalization of municipal police forces. But these reforms of the police force could also be realized via use of traditional mechanisms of community policing. In several cities, inhabitants of the district or neighborhood were again in charge of functions of “modern” policing. Although it is premature to present a global synthesis, various European examples demonstrate that th...

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Adoption, either domestic or international, poses numerous problems in terms of the approval of adopters, of the reception of the adopted, of the meeting of two desires and two histories: that of the child and that of the adopters. The studies approaching adoption in terms of difficulties and even failures are rare. The following text, an excerpt from the book Souffrances dans l'adoption , approaches the complex issue of a child's adoptability and of relatedness. These two points represent two stumbling blocks, and the reflection proposed by the author is based on a study including 428 situations of adopted children in great difficulty, taken into the charge of the Child Protection Authority after their adoption between 2003 and 2005.

Why was England the cradle of the Industrial Revolution? The present work shows that scale economies and demand, combined with the conditions of the relative prices of input factors, allow to provide a purely economic answer to this question. The labor-saving innovations of the Industrial Revolution were profitable only if, after their adoption, sales expanded enough to cover the upfront cost of capital. For some time, England was the only country in which sales exceeded the minimum threshold required to make adoption profitable. This fact is illustrated here by means of a detailed case study centered on the cotton industry and on the adoption of the spinning jenny in England and in France at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. By then, the sufficiently large and relatively well-off English middle class could guarantee to cotton spinners a level of sales that was not viable in France, where income was lower and more concentrated in the hands of the upper classes.

Why was England the cradle of the Industrial Revolution? The present work shows that scale economies and demand, combined with the conditions of the relative prices of input factors, allow to provide a purely economic answer to this question. The labor-saving innovations of the Industrial Revolution were profitable only if, after their adoption, sales expanded enough to cover the upfront cost of capital. For some time, England was the only country in which sales exceeded the minimum threshold required to make adoption profitable. This fact is illustrated here by means of a detailed case study centered on the cotton industry and on the adoption of the spinning jenny in England and in France at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution. By then, the sufficiently large and relatively well-off English middle class could guarantee to cotton spinners a level of sales that was not viable in France, where income was lower and more concentrated in the hands of the upper classes.

Piazza Martiri della Libertà, 33 - 56127 PISA (Italy) Tel. +39-050-883-343 Fax +39-050-883-344 Email: lem@sssup.it Web Page: http://www.lem.sssup.it/ ... The Spinning Jenny and the Guillotine: Technological Diffusion at ... Ugo M. Gragnolati1, Daniele Moschella1, and ...